<p>Victoria Island  is a small Arctic island of the Russian Federation. It is located at 80°9N 36°46E, halfway between the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard and the Russian archipelago of Franz Josef Land.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>This westernmost of all Russian Arctic islands is administered as part of Franz Josef Land and belongs to the Arkhangelsk Oblast administrative division of the Russian Federation.</p><br>
<p>The maximum height of Victoria Island is 105 m. The Northwestern cape is known as Cape Knipovich (Мыс Книповича; Mys Knipovicha).</p><br>
<h3>Ice cap</h3><br>
<p>Victoria Island has a surface of 10.8 km² and is almost completely covered by an ice cap where the highest point reaches 105 m above sea level. In the 1990s there was an area of about ten hectares at the northern end of the island that was unglaciated. Since then the ice cover has retreated an has left a narrow strip of unglaciated shore stretching along the northwestern side. By 2012 the surface of the ice cap was only 6.1 km².</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was discovered on 20 July 1898 by two Norwegian sealing captains, Johannes Nilsen and Ludvig Bernard Sebulonsen. The next day, captain P. W. Nilsen of the steam yacht Victoria, owned by the English adventurer Arnold Pike, sighted the island and named it after the yacht.</p><br>
<p>Although Victoria Island is situated only less than 32 nautical miles (c. 60 km) off Kvitøya in the Svalbard archipelago, it lies east of the territories put under the sovereignty of Norway according to the Spitsbergen Treaty in 1920. Consequently, the island was considered Terra nullius, until a Soviet decree of 15 April 1926 that claimed a Soviet sector in the Arctic region that also included Franz Josef Land and Victoria Island. Norway was notified on 6 May and officially protested on 19 December, contesting the Soviet claim.</p><br>
<p>The following years Norwegian authorities put much effort in annexing Victoria Island and Franz Josef Land. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs did not wish to take any measures to lay official claims, but had no objection to private initiatives. In 1929 consul Lars Christensen of Sandefjord, a whaling tycoon whose expeditions had annexed Bouvet Island and Peter I Island in the Antarctic, funded an expedition of two vessels, S/S Torsnes and M/C Hvalrossen. Upon departure from Tromsø the crew were given detailed instructions to erect a manned wireless station and leave a wintering crew on Franz Josef Land, and also to claim Victoria Island on behalf of Christensen. The expedition never reached Franz Josef Land nor Victoria Island due to severe ice conditions. On 29 July 1929, Professor Schmidt of the Soviet Sedov Expedition raised the Soviet flag at Tikaya Bay, Hooker Island, and declared that Franz Josef Land was a part of the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<p>Norway did not officially contest the Soviet annexation of Franz Josef Land itself, but continued their efforts regarding Victoria Island and a new attempt was made the following year. The ship M/S Bratvaag arrived at Victoria Island on 8 August 1930. At 04:30 a group of seven men went ashore, among them the expedition leader Gunnar Horn and the ship&#39;s captain Peder Eliassen. Horn claimed the island and raised a sign on the beach, stating the claim, and left building materials for a cabin, nails and a hammer. The true purpose of the Bratvaag Expedition was however kept secret, and Norway never officially claimed the island later, probably due to fear of upsetting the Soviet Union. In September 1932, it became known that the Soviet Union had annexed the island.</p><br>
<p>The Bratvaag Expedition nevertheless became well-known due to the findings of the long-lost remains of the Swedish explorer S. A. Andrée&#39;s Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 on the nearby Kvitøya.</p><br>
<p>Stranger Pond, a series of two artificial lakes sourced from stormwater discharge from urban and rural areas, are located in the Tuggeranong district of Canberra, within the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. One is called Upper Stranger Pond and is located in the suburb of Isabella Plains. The other is called Lower Stranger Pond and is located in the suburb of Bonython. Lower Stranger Pond is widely known simply as Stranger Pond. Google Maps only labels one of the two ponds - that being the one in Bonython and calls it Stranger Pond.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Stranger Pond was created by the construction of a dam in 1989 across a natural drainage channel, coinciding with urban development in the district. The ponds were built as sediment traps for soil and debris, and to improve the quality of the water flowing into the Murrumbidgee River. Upper Stranger Pond comprises a surface area of 4.4 hectare, while Lower Stranger Pond comprises a surface area of 4.1 hectare.</p><br>
<p>Native wildlife, such as pelicans, swans, kangaroos, and wombats, can be found in and around Stranger Pond. In the pond, Carp and Redfin can be caught; carp have been recorded up to 8 kg and can be caught on corn; redfin can be caught on celtas and small softplastics, as well as flies.</p><br>
<p>Sonora Island is one of the outer islands  of the Discovery Islands of British Columbia, Canada. It is located within Electoral Area C of the Strathcona Regional District.</p><br>
<p>The island took its name from the 36 ft Spanish schooner that explored the Pacific Northwest in 1775.</p><br>
<p>The expedition consisted of two ships: the Santiago, commanded by Bruno de Heceta and the schooner Sonora (la Señora), commanded by his second in command, Lieutenant Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra. After some loss of life, Hezeta decided to return to Mexico, but Bodega y Quadra refused to follow him without having completed the essential mission, which was to locate the Russians. He continued northward on the Sonora and got as far as what is now close to Sitka, Alaska, reaching 59˚ North Latitude on 15 August 1775. Failing to find any Russians, he returned southward. When returning he made sure that he landed once to claim the coast for Spain. This expedition made it clear to the Spanish that the Russians didn&#39;t have a large presence in the Pacific Northwest. The vessel, its full name Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (generally known as the Señora) with a crew of 16 was intended to perform coastal reconnaissance and mapping, and could make landfall in places the larger Santiago was unable to approach on its previous voyage; in this way, the expedition could officially lay claim to the lands north of Mexico it visited.</p><br>
<p>The island includes Thurston Bay Marine Provincial Park on the west side of the island (accessible only by sea) and a resort on the east side of the island.</p><br>
<p>The island is the location of the Sonora Resort.</p><br>
<p>A narrow passage between Sonora and Maurelle Islands, Hole In The Wall, is the site of extremely powerful tidal currents and whirlpools.</p><br>
<p>Discovery Mountain, on the western part of Sonora Island, has a Canadian Coast Guard radiocommunication station.</p><br>
<p>Chestnut Hill Reservoir is a reservoir created in 1870 on existing marshes and meadowland to supplement the city of Boston&#39;s water needs. It is surrounded by Chestnut Hill, a neighborhood which consists of parts of Boston, Brookline, and Newton. The reservoir, though, is located entirely within the city limits of Boston. A 1.56 mile jogging loop abuts the reservoir. Chestnut Hill Reservoir was taken offline in 1978 as it was no longer needed for regular water supply distribution, but is maintained in emergency backup status. It is recognized today on the National Register of Historic Places and it has designation as a City of Boston Landmark.</p><br>
<p>On May 1, 2010, the Chestnut Hill Reservoir was temporarily brought back online during a failure of a connecting pipe at the end of the MetroWest Water Supply Tunnel. The Sudbury aqueduct was also activated to feed Chestnut Hill from the Foss and Sudbury reservoirs to keep the supply going. Separately the Spot Pond reservoir, also an emergency source, was tapped during the pipe break incident. Though a boil-water order was issued for fear that the water would not be safe to drink, following heavy treatment with chlorine later tests showed the water to be completely safe for drinking.</p><br>
<p>In mid April 2012, the body of a Boston College student who had been missing for seven weeks was found in the reservoir. Initial autopsy results were consistent with the student having accidentally drowned.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Reservoir, Green Line (MBTA)</p><br>
<p>Cleveland Circle, Green Line (MBTA)</p><br>
<p>Aucanquilcha is a massive stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of northern Chile, just west of the border with Bolivia and within the Alto Loa National Reserve. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, the stratovolcano has the form of a ridge with a maximum height of 6,176 m. The volcano is embedded in a larger cluster of volcanoes known as the Aucanquilcha cluster. This cluster of volcanoes was formed in stages over eleven million years of activity with varying magma output, including lava domes and lava flows. Aucanquilcha volcano proper is formed from four units that erupted between 1.04-0.23 million years ago. During the ice ages, both the principal Aucanquilcha complex and the other volcanoes of the cluster were subject to glaciation, resulting in the formation of moraines and cirques.</p><br>
<p>The cluster has generated lava ranging in composition from andesite to dacite, with the main volcano being exclusively of dacitic composition. Systematic variations in temperature, crystal and biotite content have been recorded during the evolution of the cluster.</p><br>
<p>At Aucanquilcha volcano there is some fumarolic activity, and sulfur deposits are found at the summit. Several sulfur mines lie in the complex. One mine at an altitude of 5,950 m was opened in 1913 and remained in use from 1950 to 1992. It was the world&#39;s highest mine during that period. Originally, sulfur obtained at the mine was transported down with llamas. Subsequently, an aerial cableway was employed to transport the sulfur to the town of Amincha. To bring the sulfur down, a road network to the summit was constructed in 1972, although it is now impassable.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, four men were reported to be living at an altitude of 5,900 m, making them the highest permanent residents on Earth.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>Regional setting</h3><br>
<p>Aucanquilcha is part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andes, a highly silicic volcanic zone in South America. The CVZ generates magmas at a rate of 0.11 km3/millennium, one tenth of the global average of arc magma production, and lies about 135 - above the Wadati–Benioff zone. The arc has migrated eastward towards the high Andes from the Pacific Ocean coast since the Jurassic. The arc contains andesitic volcanoes, ignimbrites and compound volcanoes and has generated over 3,000 km3 of eruption products over 28 million years.</p><br>
<p>The Aucanquilcha complex lies northwest of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex (APVC), a local large igneous province. The APVC is underpinned below at a depth of 20 km by a slow seismic velocity zone that has been linked to the presence of 15–25% of partial melts in the zone. The Aucanquilcha complex is much smaller volumetrically than the APVC ignimbrites, but the duration of activity and the location indicate that Aucanquilcha is a subcomponent of the APVC complex.</p><br>
<p>The long-term magma output of Aucanquilcha is comparable to the magma output of other long-term active volcanoes in the central Andes such as Ollagüe and Llullaillaco. In all such cases, an early peak in magma output is followed by later lower-volume activity (0.1 -, followed by 0.01 -). Unzen in Japan and Mount Duff and Lassen Peak in California have similar eruption histories. Such decreases may occur because of the lithostatic load imposed by the edifices on the magma chambers and the increased travel distance of the magma through the edifice.</p><br>
<h3>Local setting</h3><br>
<p>Aucanquilcha is part of a cluster of volcanoes located between the Rio Loa and the Chile–Bolivia border. Aucanquilcha sits on top of a 2.7–3.3 mya andesite platform and rises more than 1,400 m over it. The main volcano is composed of an east-west 8 km long chain of stratovolcanoes and has an estimated volume of 37 km3. The maximum slope of the summit area is 25°. During the Cumbre Negra stage, a pyroclastic flow occurred on the northwestern side of the volcano. It covered 34 km&sup2; on a run of 10 km&sup2; and now has a volume of 0.3 km3. It was at first identified as a debris avalanche, but the lack of hummocky topography and the presence of large juvenile blocks identify it as a pyroclastic flow. One block in the flow and the lava dome from which the flow originated have been dated at 0.6 mya. Lava flows, mostly from the summit areas, are dark to grey in colour and extend as far as 2 - from their vents. It is likely that two small lava domes (Cerro Cumbre Negra and Summit 5867) on the northwest flank occupy flank vents. To the north lies the 3.3 mya old andesite Cerro Tres Monos ridge; to the west lies the east-west Cerro Polan and La Luna ridge.</p><br>
<p>The volcanic cluster of which Aucanquilcha is a part contains about 19–20 volcanoes and has generated about 340 km3 of andesite and dacite over eleven million years. Covering a surface area of 700 km&sup2, the cluster is surrounded on its northern, western and eastern sides by salt flats and alluvial deposits. On its southern side lies the Cerro Chela volcano. The cluster lies on a 70 km thick crust, and arid conditions since the Miocene have preserved its structures. Its volcanoes are arranged in north-south and northwestern alignments, which may indicate a rupture of the crust above shallow magma reservoirs.</p><br>
<p>Aucanquilcha underwent a northwestward flank collapse, generating a debris avalanche deposit. The debris avalanche descended 2,100 m and ran for 17 km with an azimuth of 211°, eventually covering an area of 59 km&sup2;. The flow was channeled between Miño Volcano and Cerro Cumbre Negra (an eroded lava massif) towards the dry Rio Loa valley, favouring the preservation of the slide deposit. The proximal parts of the slide are covered by younger eruptive products and also by moraines, indicating that the slide was followed by at least one glacial episode. The slide lacks the hummocky topography usually found on debris avalanches but has radial ridges and grooves. Another landslide occurred during the Redondo stage on the eastern side of the main volcano into the Salar de Carcote. It has the classic hummocky topography of landslides and covers a length of 17 km and a surface area of 35 km&sup2, roughly half of the surface area of the Mount St Helens avalanche of 1980 and one-third of the surface area of the Ollagüe avalanche. A volume of 0.35 km3 is assumed based on a probable thickness of 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Petrographically, the composition of the cluster ranges from andesite to dacite with SiO2 ranging from 62.8% to 65.7%. Andesites appear as lava flows while dacites form lava domes and dome complexes. The rocks from the main Aucanquilcha volcano are uniformly dacitic and show little evidence of temporal variation in their composition. Potassium content ranges from 1.5 to 4%. Plagioclase is the dominant component of the magma. Clinopyroxene+orthopyroxene+amphibole (hornblende and pargasite) or amphibole+biotite+minor amounts of pyroxene are subordinate components. Apatite, ilmenite, magnetite and zircon can also be found. There is evidence of magma mixing and mingling.</p><br>
<p>Rocks have a porphyritic texture. Basaltic andesites typically contain less than 10% crystals while dacites generally have more than 20% crystals. The Alconcha group lavas of the first one million years are crystal-poor and lack biotite; later lavas contain biotite and more crystals. Based on geothermometric data, the highest temperatures occurred during phases of high activity and lower temperatures are associated with low output periods. It is likely that crustal feedback and increased deep crustal influx of mantle-derived basalts drive increased magmatic flux. During the time of the Polan eruption on the west flank, magma output was spatially segregated with the peripheral Miño Volcano generating andesite lavas and the more central volcanos generating dacites.</p><br>
<p>Various parts of the main volcano have been subjected to hydrothermal alteration. The Azufrera stage edifice was subject to the most alteration; especially in the summit area and between the Angulo and Azufrera summits lie sulfur rich talus deposits. The central part of the complex is heavily altered by fumarole activity. Hydrothermal alteration may be driven by the formation of a deep magma reservoir and resulting hydrothermal circulation in overlying rocks.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptive history</h3><br>
<p>Eruption rates increased 6 million years ago, coinciding with magmas becoming more uniform in composition and the onset of strong hydrothermal alteration. It is possible that solidification of magmas below the volcano insulated the feeding channels from heat loss and caused the temperatures in the system to increase. Activity waned again 2 million years ago, with magma and included crystals being drawn from depths of 3 - and forming the Aucanquilcha volcano proper. The 10-million-year duration of activity of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex systems is comparable to the duration of Aucanquilcha activity. The age of the lava flows ranges from heavily glaciated andesite flows overlying less-eroded ones to possibly postglacial lava flows that may be tens of thousands of years old.</p><br>
<h4>Aucanquilcha cluster</h4><br>
<p>The Aucanquilcha cluster formed in four stages, each corresponding to a group. The Alconcha group, with seven volcanoes, is constructed from pyroxene, andesite and dacite and formed 11–8 mya. It is constructed from two northern composite cones, Alconcha and Volcan Tuco (also known as Cerro Garage, dated 10.96-10.51 mya), and five lava domes on the northeastern side of the cluster. Alconcha has a large breach on the southern side of its crater that is likely the product of a flank collapse but the avalanche deposit may be buried beneath younger material. Lavas within the breach are dated 10.78–10.43 mya. The centres of Volcan Tuco and Alconcha are heavily eroded, and Alconcha&#39;s lavas and scoria lie on top of Tuco. The Ujina ignimbrite was erupted 9.4 mya from an unknown vent and has a volume of 2 km3 of dacite. While the vent location is unknown, the composition of the ignimbrite, and its dating and distribution, indicate an association with this group. The domes are poorly researched, with the Coscalito dome dated 8.9–8.7 mya and Cerro Amincha 8.01. The total volume of this group is 46 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.013 km3/millennium.</p><br>
<p>The Gordo group, which erupted 6–4 mya following a probable 2-million-year hiatus, is located in the southern and western parts of the cluster. Cerro Gordo itself (5.49 mya) has a crater that is breached westwards, exposing about twelve radial dykes but with no trace of a debris avalanche. One of the larger centres of the cluster, Gordo is associated with a lava field on its western side that is dated 4.9 mya. Cerro Puquíos and Cerro Negro (5.81–5.28 mya) lie on the southern side of the cluster, and glacial cirques cutting their northeastern flanks reveal layers of scoria and lavas. Puquíos has an amphitheatre structure on its western side. Paco Paco (4.41–4.27 mya) is located north of most Gordo group volcanoes. It forms a 4 km wide stratocone with a lava-filled crater, and layers of scoria and agglutinated lavas dip from it. Volcan Pabellón (4.14–4.12 mya) sits southwest of the Puquíos-Negro ridge. The Las Bolitas lava field (5.23–5.13 mya) is associated with the Gordo group but the vent locations are unknown. The total volume of this group is 55 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.027 km3/millennium.</p><br>
<p>The 3.6–2.3 mya Polan group, with ten dispersed volcanoes including Miño Volcano, is the largest group in the cluster and includes Tres Monos, La Luna, Cerro Polan, Chaihuiri, Miño Volcano and the lavas of the Aucanquilcha platform. Cerro Polans (3.5–3 mya) eastern side is deeply dissected, and the exposed materials are heavily altered in the deeper sections. Lava fields to Polans west and southwest (2.6 mya on one western field) are associated with it. La Luna (2.97–2.57) lies just east of Polan; these two volcanoes were probably one volcano in the past. La Luna has a lava dome surrounded by a glaciated but unaltered lava table. Cerro Tres Monos (3.4–2.78 mya) forms a northbound 14 km long ridge with at least six vents. Hydrothermal alteration has affected some lavas and pyroclastics from Tres Monos, and the western side has lateral and terminal moraines. The Aucanquilcha platform (3.6–2.7 mya) sits underneath the main Aucanquilcha volcano, and its lava mostly flowed north. Its southern side is a 4,500 m table with one hill, Cerro Campana, dated to 3.3 mya. The platform presumably forms one third of the total volume of the Aucanquilcha cluster and may have originated from a part of the ridge of the La Luna-Polan trend, now buried beneath Aucanquilcha. Chaihuiri (2.39 mya) is a lava dome with moraines and two short lava flows; it is the youngest Polan group volcano. The total volume of this group is 154 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.077 km3/millennium.</p><br>
<p>After the four main phases, some scoria cones of basaltic composition, including Poruñita and Luna de Tierra, formed between Aucanquilcha and Ollagüe.</p><br>
<h4>Aucanquilcha proper</h4><br>
<p>The main Aucanquilcha volcano formed in four stages. Between 1.04–0.92 mya the bulk of the volcano formed in the Azufrera stage. One lava flow toward the southwest is unusually long at 6 km. A vent at 6,116 m altitude fed most of this edifice; a second vent on the northern flank at the 5,887 m summit generated three lava flows, two shorter ones and a long one to the northwest. The Azufrera stage lavas are blocky dacites with large clasts and flow fronts up to 20 m high. These flows are moderately altered and have oxidation rinds. There is little evidence of explosive activity, but it may have been obscured by glacial erosion. The total volume is 21.1 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.16 km3/millennium. This volcano was probably an isolated cone, but the existence of a previous stage cannot be excluded.</p><br>
<p>The second stage, named Rodado, lasted from 0.95 to 0.85 mya. It formed on the eastern slopes of the Azufrera volcano, with one vent at the 6,073 m summit. Rodado stage lavas are blocky and platy and usually thicker than Azufrera stage lavas. Some of the summit vent lavas are among the most vesicular of this stage. They are also less weathered (oxidation rinds are c. 1 cm thick) and less subject to solfataric alteration. The Cerro Chinchillas lavas are the oldest of this stage; erupted from an unknown vent, they lack amphiboles. The total volume is 9.1 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.09 km3/millennium. A flank collapse, possibly triggered by a large earthquake, occurred during this stage.</p><br>
<p>The third stage is the Cumbre Negra stage, named after the westernmost summit and principal vent of this stage, Cerro Cumbre Negra (5,670 m). The time course of its activity is less defined than the previous two stages; it may have occurred between 1–0.47 mya, but most likely 0.6–0.5 mya based on potassium–argon dating. Four lava flows derived from the main vent, all less than one kilometre long and 40 – thicker than previous stages. They all have hydration rinds but no native sulfur deposits. This stage generated Aucanquilcha&#39;s only pyroclastic flow during a lava dome collapse as occurred on Merapi in Indonesia. The total volume of this stage is 0.7 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.005 km3/millennium.</p><br>
<p>The youngest stage, known as Angulo, lasted from 0.66 to 0.24 mya. It was centered between the Azufrera and Rodado stage edifices 0.35–0.23 mya. Most lava flows from this stage originate on a 1 km long ridge that includes Aucanquilcha&#39;s highest summit. One crater on the northeast side of the ridge fed lavas to the north. Other than that, most flows extend southwards 4 – from the vent, and with the exception of a due south flow 50 m thick they are thin, with thicknesses of 15 –. One of the oldest flows has been compared in length to the 50% longer Chao Dacite flow but is much thinner. The flows from this stage are weakly weathered and partially overlie glacial deposits. The total volume is 5.8 km3, indicating a flux rate of 0.015 km3/millennium.</p><br>
<p>The volcano has active fumaroles though the low-temperature fumaroles are not visible through short wavelength infrared data from satellites. Fumarole activity was observed in 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciation and hydrology</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is currently unglaciated despite its height, due to the aridity of the climate. The Quebrada de Chaigüire valley originates at the foot of Aucanquilcha. The Rio Loa river drains the western and northwestern sides of the volcano; the eastern side drains into the Salar de Ollagüe salt pan, the northeastern into the Salar de Laguani, and the southeastern into the Salar de Carcote. Most valleys only intermittently transport water, if at all.</p><br>
<p>The volcanic cluster was modestly glaciated during the Quaternary, as evidenced by glacial striations and moraines at elevations above 4,500 m. The western Azufrera edifice was heavily glaciated in the past. At least three moraine stages have been mapped on that edifice, and on its southern side is found a modest cirque with glacially polished lavas on the floor. The Rodado stage edifice has several moraine stages on its southern slopes. Another small cirque with a moraine has been found in the northeastern side of the Cerro Cumbre Negra summit next to an Azufrera stage lava flow. A small moraine lies on the south side of the Angulo edifice; some lavas from that edifice overlie glacial deposits.</p><br>
<h2>Human activity and mining</h2><br>
<p>A mine at 5,950 m altitude that yielded ore with 30% sulfur was opened by Julian B. Carrasco in 1913, who subsequently established the Compañía Minera y Azufrera Carrasco S.A in 1933. The sulfur was transported down first with llamas, later through an aerial cableway system and finally by trucks. The sulfur was then transported to Chuquicamata to be converted into sulfuric acid. The mine was active from 1950 to 1992. The last reported mining activity on the mountain was in 1994. In 1977 other sulfur mines were present to the west between Cerro Polan and Cerro Gordo and south of the main Aucanquilcha massif. The cableway runs from the mine to a mining camp (5,300 m) and from there to Amincha (3,900 m). The road leading up to the mine is dated 1972 and is now impassable because of rock falls. There is still a relic network of roads leading up to 5,900 m.</p><br>
<p>Covellite and other copper sulfides found in the area appear to have formed through postvolcanic epithermal mineralization above deep porphyry copper mineralization. The sulfur itself formed at temperatures of 450 &deg;C in a now extinct fumarole.</p><br>
<h3>Altitude and habitation</h3><br>
<p>The sulfur mine is notable for being the highest mine in the world at 5,950 m and the highest permanently inhabited area. An expedition in 1935, part of the International High Altitude Expedition, found that miners lived at an altitude of 17,500 ft in the town of Quilcha and reached the higher mine on foot. The expedition found that an even higher abandoned village at 5,639 m existed, but miners refused to live there. The conclusion taken from the expedition was that 5,334 m was the highest habitable altitude.</p><br>
<p>West in 1986 reported that a few miners permanently lived in the mine area. A small group of men, caretakers of the mine, has lived at an altitude of 19,500 ft in a galvanized iron hut. One of them reportedly had spent two years there. These are considered to be the highest human inhabitants on Earth. Research performed on Aymara miners of the Aucanquilcha mine indicates that they are fully acclimatized to the altitude, with less hyperventilation and higher hemoglobin than acclimatized people from lower areas. Their families are born and raised at lower altitudes, however.</p><br>
<p>Ollagüe  or Ullawi is a massive andesite stratovolcano in the Andes on the border between Bolivia and northern Chile, within the Antofagasta Region of Chile and the Potosi Department of Bolivia. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its highest summit is 5,868 m above sea level and is capped by a summit crater that opens to the south. The western rim of the summit crater is formed by a compound of lava domes, the youngest of which features a vigorous fumarole that is visible over large distances.</p><br>
<p>Ollagüe is mostly of Pleistocene age. It started developing over one million years ago, forming the so-called Vinta Loma and Santa Rosa series mostly of andesitic lava flows. A fault cut into the edifice and caused two large landslides. Later two groups of lava domes formed, the Ch&#39;aska Urqu on the southeastern slope and the La Celosa on the northwestern. Both are formed by dacite. Another centre named La Poruñita formed at that time on the western foot of the volcano, but it is not clear whether it is part of the main Ollagüe system. Activity at the summit continued during this time, forming the El Azufre sequence.</p><br>
<p>This phase of edifice growth was interrupted by a major collapse of the western flank of Ollagüe. Debris from the collapse spread in the form of hummocks down the western slope and into the adjacent salar, splitting it in two. The occurrence of this collapse was perhaps facilitated by a major crustal lineament that crosses Ollagüe from southeast to northwest.</p><br>
<p>Later volcanic activity filled up the collapse scar, forming the Santa Cecilia series. This series includes lava flows as well as a compound lava dome on the western rim of the summit crater, which represent the youngest volcanic activity of Ollagüe. Later glaciations have formed moraines on the volcano.</p><br>
<p>While there is no clear evidence of historical eruptions at Ollagüe, the volcano is considered to be potentially active and is monitored by SERNAGEOMIN. Hydrothermal alteration has formed sulfur deposits on the volcano, which is the site of several sulfur mines.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is also known as Ullawi, Oyague, Ollagua and Oyahué. The name is derived from Aymara ullaña to see, to look at, to watch, wi a nominalizing suffix to indicate a place, "viewpoint".</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>Ollagüe straddles the border between Chile and Bolivia, with most of the edifice lying on the Bolivian side of the border. The Chilean portion lies in the commune of Ollague, in the El Loa province of the Antofagasta Region, while the Bolivian segment lies in the Potosi department. Towns close to Ollagüe are Amincha, Buenaventura, Cosca, El Chaco, Ollague and Santa Rosa. The main road of Ollagüe runs along the western foot of the volcano. On the mountain itself, which reportedly can be climbed from the eastern side, lie a few mines.</p><br>
<h3>Regional</h3><br>
<p>Ollagüe is part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), one of the volcanic arcs that exist in the Andes. The Andes have segments with volcanic activity and segments without; volcanic activity occurs only where the angle of subduction is relatively steep. There are four such segments, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the CVZ, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The subducted slab loses water as it sinks into the mantle, and this water and other components migrate into the mantle wedge and cause the formation of melts in the wedge.</p><br>
<p>The CVZ is located between 16° and 28° southern latitude, on the western margin of South America. At this latitude, 240 – west of the CVZ the Nazca Plate subducts steeply beneath the South America Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench. East of the CVZ lies the Altiplano, a plateau with average elevations of 3,800 m. The CVZ contains about 1,100 volcanoes of Cenozoic age, including Parinacota, San Pedro and Tata Sabaya. Many volcanoes in the CVZ have summit heights exceeding 5,500 m, forming the Occidental Cordillera of the Andes at these latitudes. About 34 of these volcanoes are considered to be active, most of the volcanoes have not received detailed scientific reconnaissance. A notable feature of the volcanoes of the CVZ is that they formed over a fairly thick crust, which reaches a thickness of 70 km; as a consequence crustal contamination has heavily affected the magmas that formed the volcanoes. The crust is not uniform along the length of the south-central CVZ because the northern segment is of Proterozoic and the southern of Paleozoic age.</p><br>
<p>The Central Andes formed first during the Paleozoic–Eocene and were worn down by erosion during the Oligocene. The recent volcanic activity started during the Miocene. It includes major ignimbrite eruptions of dacitic to rhyolitic composition beginning from 23 million years ago, causing the formation of calderas like Galan. The total volume of this formation exceeds 10,000 km3. Stratovolcanoes also began to form 23 million years ago, although most were constructed in the last 6 million years. They are volumetrically much smaller and were formed by magmas whose composition ranges from basaltic andesite to dacite. Finally, small alkaline volcanic centres are found primarily in the back-arc region and appear to be young. A notable trait of the Central Andes are the long strike-slip faults that extend from the Eastern Cordillera northwest through the Altiplano into the volcanic arc. These include from north to south the Pastos Grandes-Lipez-Coranzuli, Calama-Olacapato-El Toro, Archibarca-Cerro Galan and Chulumpaja-Cerro Negro lineaments. Monogenetic centres are aligned on these faults.</p><br>
<h3>Local</h3><br>
<p>Ollagüe is a stratovolcano and lies isolated slightly east of the main volcanic arc. The volcano is usually covered with snow, which together with yellow and red colours gives Ollagüe a beautiful appearance. Other than some past glacial activity, the arid climate of the Altiplano region has kept erosion rates low, meaning that the volcanic edifice is well preserved; on the flip side, lack of erosion also means that relatively little of its internal structure is exposed.</p><br>
<p>Ollagüe has two summits, Ollagüe South is 5,868 m high and Ollagüe North 5,863 m. The summit features a summit crater 1,000 ft below the summit with a narrow opening towards the south, which forms the Quebrada El Azufre. The rim of the crater culminates into 5,868 m high Ollagüe South. The western rim is formed by several lava domes. These lava domes feature landslide deposits and lava flows that emanate from the foot of the dome. Originally they were considered to be a single lava dome, before it was found that the dome is formed by four individual domes. Just north of the summit crater lies another semicircular crater rim which encircles the summit crater on its northern side and whose high point is 5,863 m high Ollagüe North. The northeastern part of the edifice is old and affected by glaciation and gullying, while the southwestern part has experienced younger activity and flank collapses. The volume of the well exposed edifice is about 85 km3-91 km3 covering a surface area of 260 km&sup2;. Ollagüe rises about 2,065 m above the surrounding terrain.</p><br>
<p>The volcano has a number of adventive vents on its slopes, especially the northwestern and southeastern slope. These include Ch&#39;aska Urqu on the southeastern slope and La Celosa (4,320 m; also known as El Ingenio) on the northwestern. They lie at distances of 4 - and 1 - from the summit vent, respectively. The alignment of these subsidiary vents with the summit vents suggests that a N55°W striking lineament influenced their eruption; such channelling of magma along radial fractures has also been observed on other volcanoes such as Medicine Lake volcano, Mount Mazama and South Sister. A normal fault runs across the main edifice but is not aligned with these adventive vents, and the Pastos Grandes-Lipez-Coranzuli lineament intersects with the volcanic arc at Ollagüe. Fault scarps on the northwestern and southeastern side of the edifice also reflect faulting. Overall, northwest trending lineaments exercised a strong influence on the tectonic development of Ollagüe, and may be the path that feeder dykes of the more recent eruptions followed. Tectonic extension occurred on the basement perpendicularly to the lineament.</p><br>
<p>A 700 m wide phreatomagmatic vent named La Poruñita lies on the western slope, on the deposit formed by the sector collapse. It lies at an elevation of 3,868 m, is constructed out of tephra and formed on the sector collapse deposit. Farther up on the edifice, two cinder cones are found just north and west of the highest summit of Ollagüe.</p><br>
<p>Ollagüe has experienced glacial activity. Moraines are found on top of young lava flows and glacial valleys cut into the slopes. On the western side, there are remnants of a moraine girdle, which reaches an elevation of 4,500 m on the southwestern foot of the volcano. Another possibly separate moraine girdle has been reported in the summit region, at elevations of about 5,000 m. This moraine is thought to have been formed during the Little Ice Age; the present-day snowline is higher than the volcano, while the Pleistocene one may have occurred at elevations of 5,000 m.</p><br>
<p>Areas of hydrothermal alteration are found on Ollagüe, including in the summit crater, on its northeastern and northwestern rim and low on the northwestern slope.Alunite, gypsum and sulfur were formed by the alteration on the summit and the northwestern slope. These areas have been mined, with the Santa Cecilia mine located on the northwestern rim and the Santa Rosa mine in the centre of the crater. Mining was still underway in 1988. In 1990, it was estimated that 3,000,000 t of sulfur can be mined at the Santa Rosa mine. Chalcedony, clay, kaolinite and opal are found as well. According to a report in 1894, fumes released from sulfur beds can incapacitate a man in seconds, making ascents difficult.</p><br>
<p>A road reaching up to an altitude of 5,500 m leads to the western and southern mines. Sulfur was transported through an aerial tramway, which had replaced llamas. A reduction plant with autoclaves is also found at Ollagüe.</p><br>
<p>Older volcanic centres around Ollagüe are Cerro Chijliapichina southwest (also known as Cerro Peineta), Cerro Canchajapichina south and Wanaku east of the volcano. These centres are unrelated to Ollagüe and were deeply affected by glaciation. On the eastern foot the Carcote ignimbrite crops out, a 5.9–5.5 million years old ignimbrite that is part of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex. These ignimbrites form the basement in much of the region. The Carcote ignimbrite originally formed a plateau that extended around the volcano. Off the western foot of Ollagüe lies a smaller volcanic centre that forms an effusive shield.</p><br>
<p>The Salar de Ollague is located due north, while the Salar de San Martin lies southwest and Salar de Chiguana northeast of Ollagüe. They are situated at elevations of 3,690 -. The Salar de San Martin and the Salar de Ascotan farther south form a northwest-southeast trending graben delimited by the same normal fault that crosses the edifice of Ollagüe.</p><br>
<h3>Debris avalanche</h3><br>
<p>A major sector collapse occurred on the western flank of the edifice, with the deposit formed by the collapse extending west from it. Debris from the collapse flowed for 16 km into the Salar de San Martin/Salar de Carcote, which slowed down the landslide. Only the distal sector of the collapse deposit is still visible; the parts higher up on the edifice have been buried by more recent lava domes and lava flows. The distal segment is also slightly raised compared to the more proximal parts. The collapse deposit covers a surface area of 100 km&sup2; and has a hummocky appearance, similar to the collapse deposit formed by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The avalanche deposit separates the Salar de San Martin from the Salar de Ollague.</p><br>
<p>The younger debris avalanche deposit has a volume of about 1 km3. It was believed that it occurred about 600,000 - 400,000 years or 800,000 ± 100,000 years ago, but dating of the andesites cut by the collapse yielded a maximum age of 292,000 ± 25,000 years ago. Later the deposit was covered by lake deposits and debris from the piedmont, and evaporites accumulated in depressions within the deposit. Several lake terraces are set into the avalanche deposit, with the traces of the highstand of Lake Tauca being recognizable; thus the sector collapse predates the highstand.</p><br>
<p>Andesitic lava bombs on top of the deposit may indicate that an eruption occurred during the collapse. Indeed, pyroclastic materials have been found at the foot of the volcano within the collapse deposit, where they fill small depressions. These materials are formed by several units of pumice and ash, generated by fallout and lava dome collapses.</p><br>
<p>The sector collapse was probably caused by the edifice oversteepening as it grew, with Ollagüe reaching a critical height before the collapse. Magma pressurization probably triggered the failure, as the remnants of a lava lake in its summit indicate that magma pressure in the edifice was high at the time of the collapse. Conversely, hydrothermal alteration - which tends to weaken the stability of a volcanic edifice - was not involved in the onset of instability. The northwest-southeast cutting fault probably additionally destabilized the edifice, allowing it to fail into a southwestern direction. A previous southwesterly tilt of the basement also assisted in focusing the failure into that direction.</p><br>
<p>The sector collapse formed a 3.5 km wide collapse scar on the upper western flank, although the summit itself was probably unaffected. This scar however was later filled by subsequent volcanic activity and modified by glaciation and is thus not conclusively identifiable.</p><br>
<p>Two old sector collapses occurred during the older stages of volcanic activity. Their collapse scars are noticeable on the southeastern-southern and northwestern areas of the summit. The first is 400 m high and 1,500 m long, the second 4,000 m long and many 10 m high. Hydrothermally altered breccia with block sizes of several 0.1 – from the first collapse fills a valley on the western slope of the volcano. Compared to the younger collapse, they are much narrower and have a highly unusual rectilinear form. These collapses occurred about 450,000 years ago along the strike of a normal fault that cuts across Ollagüe. Like in the young collapse, the summit was unaffected. The lava domes that form the western rim of the summit crater have been subject to smaller sector collapses as well.</p><br>
<h2>Composition</h2><br>
<p>Ollagüe has erupted rocks ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite. Blobs of basaltic andesite are found in all rocks from the volcano; they probably formed when mafic magma was quenched by colder felsic magma. The andesites and dacites are relatively rich in crystals.</p><br>
<p>Phenocrysts in the main andesite-dacite series include amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, ilmenite, magnetite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and rarely olivine, quartz and zircon. The more acidic rocks also contain rare sphene. Some of the phenocrysts are surrounded by reaction rims, suggesting that they were not in chemical equilibrium with surrounding magma. Cumulates of phenocrysts indicate their formation during the magma differentiation process.</p><br>
<p>Overall, the composition of Ollagüe&#39;s rocks fits into the calc-alkaline series, with a high content of potassium. Gabbroic clots embedded in the lavas probably formed from cumulates. Xenocrysts with large reaction rims testify to a strong crustal contamination of the forming magma.</p><br>
<p>The overall magma temperatures ranged 825 - for the andesitic and dacitic magmas and 1,010 - in the basaltic andesite. The magmas became cooler over time, with the post-collapse magmas being colder than the pre-collapse eruptive products. Variations in temperature between the outside and the inside of phenocrysts suggest that the magma chamber of Ollagüe was occasionally reheated by fresh magmas. Water contents of the main edifice magmas range 3-5% by weight; in the Ch&#39;aska Urqu and La Celosa magmas the water content is less well determined, but is comparable to that of the main edifice magmas. Later research, however, has raised questions about the reliability of the method used to determine water content in magma, which may have been lower than 3–5%.</p><br>
<p>Element compositions match these of other volcanoes in the CVZ. Ollagüe magmas did not exclusively form from fractional crystallization; magma mixing and crustal contamination contributed to the formation of the magmas although it is not easy to determine what the composition of contaminants was. Probably, it was in part hydrothermally altered upper crustal rock, and in part Miocene age ignimbrites. Crystal fractionation with some minor contamination by crustal components is probably the most satisfactory explanation for the magma chemistry of Ollagüe. It is however difficult to tell the relative importance of contamination vs. assimilation.</p><br>
<p>The composition data indicate that Ollagüe was underpinned by a large magma chamber that was the source of the main edifice building andesite magmas. In this main magma chamber, differentiation processes generated the andesitic and dacitic magmas from basaltic andesite. The chamber itself was chemically zoned. Episodically, new mafic magmas were injected into the magma chamber from below. Subsidiary magma chambers which developed beneath the northwestern and southeastern flank gave rise to the La Celosa and Ch&#39;aska Urqu volcanic centres, respectively. These subsidiary pathways also allowed basaltic andesite magmas to ascend to the surface; the main magma chamber would have intercepted any mafic magmas ascending into the central vent as such mafic magmas are denser. The walls of the magma chamber were also affected by strong hydrothermal alteration processes, with weaker alteration also occurring in the walls of the subsidiary magma chambers. La Poruñita was probably formed by magmas from the floor of the main magma chamber, or from the magma that enters the magma chamber from below; it had already undergone some crustal contamination in the depths of the crust when it erupted.</p><br>
<h2>Fumarolic activity</h2><br>
<p>A major fumarole is active on the summit of the volcano, its plume reaching heights of 100 m. It is strong enough that it can be seen on the ground from many kilometres away. The vent of the fumarole lies in the summit lava domes, more specifically in a 200 m high and 350 m wide collapse scar in the southeasternmost lava dome of the compound summit lava dome. Other volcanoes in the area with fumarolic activity include San Pedro and Putana.</p><br>
<p>Fumarole temperatures appear to be so low (less than 100 &deg;C) that in 1989 the exhalations could not be detected in the Thematic Mapper infrared band of the Landsat satellite even during night. More recent satellite observations have shown the existence of hotspots with temperature anomalies of about 5 K-change; the relatively poor visibility of the hotspots in satellite images contrasts with the good visibility of the fumarole from the ground and may reflect the relatively small surface area of the hotspots, which makes them difficult to isolate in satellite images.</p><br>
<p>Fumarolic gases are formed primarily by and, with minor contents of. The amounts of released have been measured; quantities vary but in December 2013 appeared to be about 150 ±.</p><br>
<h2>Eruption history</h2><br>
<p>Not many radiometric dates have been obtained on Ollagüe. Most dates are younger than one million years. One proposed timeline subdivides the volcano into three stages: Ollagüe I between 1.2 million and 900,000 years ago, Ollagüe II 900,000 - 600,000 years ago and Ollagüe III 400,000 years ago to present. La Poruñita, once considered of Holocene age, has been dated at 680,000 ± 200,000 to 420,000 ± 200,000 years ago; it is also not clear if it belongs to the Ollagüe volcanic system. Magma output during the history of the volcano is about 0.09 km3/kyr.</p><br>
<h3>Vinta Loma and Santa Rosa</h3><br>
<p>The oldest stage of activity is known as Vinta Loma and formed the bulk of the volcanic edifice, especially on the eastern side and in the summit area. During this stage, lava flows and some pyroclastic flows were erupted from a central vent. The pyroclastic flows are exposed as a 60 m thick sequence in a cirque close to the summit and reflect the occurrence of Plinian eruptions during this stage of volcanic activity. The Vinta Loma series is subdivided into two groups separated by an unconformity, which are dated to 870,000 ± 80,000 - 641,000 ± 9,000 and 910,000 ± 170,000 - 1,230,000 ± 80,000 years ago respectively. The Vinta Loma series more recently was partitioned into two series, Vinta Loma proper and the younger Santa Rosa. Two summit crater rims and sector collapses formed during these stages. The northern summit cinder/scoria cone and some lateral lava flows have been assigned to the Santa Rosa series.</p><br>
<p>Lava flows from these stages have gray colours and rocky to plate-y appearance, with flow folds and some breccia. Their thicknesses and widths range 20 -, increasing on gentler slopes. Especially on the upper slopes, old colluvium conceals the surface of Vinta Loma lava flows. The texture of the lavas ranges from porphyritic to seriate. Two-pyroxene andesite is the dominant component but dacite has been found as well.</p><br>
<p>The Vinta Loma edifice developed on top of an older fault. During the progression of volcanism the fault itself progressively propagated up and across the edifice and caused the southwest sector of the volcano to subside, without changes in volcanic activity. Eventually, the subsidence prevented lava flows of the Santa Rosa series from flowing northeast across the fault trace. Then, the two older sector collapses occurred on the southwestern sides of the fault.</p><br>
<h3>Ch'aska Urqu, El Azufre and La Celosa series</h3><br>
<p>Later the Chaska Urqu stage was erupted on top of Vinta Loma deposits through radial vents on the southeastern flank. This stage is named after the 300 m high Chaska Urqu lava dome on the southeastern flank. The stage generated lava flows, lava domes and coulees with compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite, the former forming the base of the stage and the andesites and dacites being deposited above it. These basaltic andesites form 1 - thick grey coloured lava flows and a 20 m thick platy flow on top of the smaller ones.</p><br>
<p>About 10 lava andesitic-dacitic domes and coulees were erupted on top of the basaltic andesite lava flows. They are short and have steep slopes, often ending with scree at the front. On the foot of the volcano they sometimes developed pressure ridges, and a 80 m deep cleft in Ch&#39;aska Urqu may have formed when the dome spread laterally during its formation. As with Vinta Loma lavas, the upper parts of the coulees are covered with thin colluvium.</p><br>
<p>Simultaneously, another dacitic lava dome stage occurred on the northwestern flank, forming the La Celosa lava dome-coulee complex. Its age has been controversial, with it being first associated with the youngest post collapse stages through argon-argon dating; then with the oldest stages of volcanic activity. Eventually potassium-argon dating yielded an age of 507,000 ± 14,000 years ago. Two other dates obtained from northern lava domes are 450,000 ± 100,000 and 340,000 ± 150,000 years ago. It has a lobate appearance, and similar to the Ch&#39;aska Urqu dome a 1.5 km wide rift cuts through the dome. The La Celosa complex was erupted from two separate vents, and owing to its low altitude it has not been affected by glaciation.</p><br>
<p>The andesites and dacites are of grey to light grey colour respectively, with porphyritic to vitrophyric textures. In this stage, dacites are more common than in the Vinta Loma deposits. Basaltic andesite contains olivine, while the dacites tend to contain more amphibole and biotite. There is a tendency of silicic acid contents to increase in the upper parts of the exposure.</p><br>
<p>Later evidence has indicated that some lava flows were erupted from the summit during the Ch&#39;aska Urqu stage. Also, a structure interpreted as a former lava lake formed close to the summit during this time. The lava lake-like structure itself is undated; one of the lava flows was dated 410,000 ± 80,000 years ago and the southern summit cinder cone is 292,000 ± 25,000 years old. This series is known as El Azufre. The El Azufre series was emplaced within a sector collapse, a collapse which generated pyroclastic deposits in the Poroto section of the southwestern flank.</p><br>
<h3>Post-collapse and Santa Cecilia series</h3><br>
<p>The principal sector collapse occurred after the Ch&#39;aska Urqu stage. It was followed by the eruption of andesitic lava flows and the compound lava dome in the summit region, all focused into the collapse scar; this focusing is a phenomenon noted at other volcanoes which underwent flank collapses such as Planchon-Peteroa. This formation has been named the Santa Cecilia series. The compound summit lava dome probably fills the collapse scar but young lavas and glacial erosion make this assessment difficult. Dates obtained on the summit lava domes range from 220,000 ± 50,000 years ago to 130,000 ± 40,000 years ago. The youngest date was obtained on the youngest dome and shows an age of 65,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The lava flows are best exposed on the western flank and have a grey colour. They display levees and pressure ridges and appear to be younger than the Ch&#39;aska Urqu flows. They originate at elevations of 4,800 m and extend over distances of 4.5 km. The summit lava dome has a volume of 0.35 km3; blocks with sizes of up to 10 m were formed by landslides during its growth. Later research has shown that the summit lava dome is actually formed by several separate lava domes that extend southeast along a feeder fissure and become younger to the southeast. The foot of the compound dome is formed by scree-like breccia deposits.</p><br>
<p>Compositionally, the post-collapse magmas appear to fit into two distinct groups. Older flows are dominated by pyroxene with only small quantities of amphibole and biotite. Younger shorter flows farther up on the edifice and the summit lava dome conversely contain relatively large quantities of amphibole and biotite.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity and hazards</h3><br>
<p>The post-collapse lava flows have been affected by glacial activity, indicating that eruptive activity ceased before the end of the last glacial stage; thus the volcano was largely constructed in pre-Holocene times. However, a 300 m long and 150 m wide lava flow extending from the youngest summit lava dome appears to post-date glaciation, and the dome itself is also unmodified.</p><br>
<p>An uncertain report of an eruption on 3 December 1903 exists, as well as on 8 October 1927. Increased fumarolic activity was observed in 1854, 1888, 1889, and 1960. More recently, seismic swarms as well as general earthquake activity have been observed at Ollagüe, which is deemed to be a fairly substantial seismic activity. This earthquake activity occurs in a diffuse pattern around the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is considered to be potentially active because of the fumarolic activity, and SERNAGEOMIN publishes a volcano hazard index for Ollagüe. A seismometer array was deployed in 2010-2011. Future eruptions of Ollagüe may threaten the town of Ollague 12 km away and the highway.</p><br>
<h2>Additional images</h2><br>
<p>Tacora is a stratovolcano located in the Andes of the Arica y Parinacota Region of Chile. Bordering Peru, it is the northernmost volcano of Chile. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone in Chile, one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone has several of the highest volcanoes in the world. Tacora itself is a stratovolcano with a caldera and a crater; it is heavily eroded by glacial activity and its youngest radiometric age is 50,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone results from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. Tacora is constructed on the so-called "Arica Altiplano" and is part of a north-south alignment of volcanoes. Tacora itself has uncertain reports of historical eruptions and features ongoing fumarolic activity.</p><br>
<p>The fumarolic activity has resulted in the emplacement of substantial deposits of sulfur, which were already mentioned centuries ago. Towards the latter 19th century, systematic mining of the sulfur deposits of Tacora occurred and substantial mining infrastructure was constructed on the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>Tacora lies in the Arica y Parinacota Region of Chile, about 100 km northeast of Arica. It is the northernmost volcano of Chile and poorly known.</p><br>
<p>Tacora is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one out of several volcanic zones of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the world&#39;s major volcanic provinces and features both a high density of volcanoes and some of the tallest volcanic edifices in the world. Volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone include Sabancaya, El Misti and Ubinas in Peru and Tacora, Isluga, Irruputuncu, Ollague, San Pedro, Putana, Alitar, Lascar and Lastarria in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina; there are about 34 volcanoes in the Chilean portion of the Central Volcanic Zone alone. Of these Lascar is considered to be the most active, with a large eruption in 1993. Aside from volcanoes, the Central Volcanic Zone also features geothermal fields such as El Tatio.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is a cone with a summit caldera that opens northwest and a 500 m wide crater below the summit within the caldera scarp. Steep mafic lava flows form the bulk of the edifice, along with lava domes and pyroclastic material. The edifice is heavily eroded but still has a circular shape, and there is trace of a sector collapse scar and of the resulting debris avalanche on the southeastern flank.</p><br>
<p>According to some reports glaciers occur within the caldera at elevations above 5,500 m, while other reports indicate the absence of perennial snow on the mountain. Glacial valleys and moraines have been recognized on the eastern, southeastern and southern slopes of the volcano, and cirques have been found at 5,000 m elevation. These landforms suggest that the mountain was formerly glaciated. Three sets of moraines have been described, one at 4,400 m elevation possibly linked to the last glacial maximum, an older one at 4,500 m elevation and a third at 4,900 m elevation which may have formed during the Little Ice Age. Tacora also features rock glaciers; unlike other glacial bodies in Chile the fronts of rock glaciers on Tacora are not retreating.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is an important source of water for the region. The Lluta River originates on Tacora, and its waters are highly salty owing to their origin on the volcano. The Chislluma River flows past the northeastern flank of Tacora and the Rio Caracarani past the southeastern one; finally, the Mauri Canal and Uchusuma Canal run along the southeastern slopes.</p><br>
<p>On the western and northwestern flanks, solfataras are present both in the form of fumaroles and of steaming ground, and the Aguas Calientes de Tacora hot springs are located 2 km southwest of the volcano. Further, geyserite cones indicate that geysers were formerly active on the volcano. Seismic tomography has been used to image both the hydrothermal systems and magma systems of the volcano, and Tacora has been prospected for geothermal power generation.</p><br>
<h3>Fumaroles</h3><br>
<p>Fumarole gases are dominated by water vapour with other components including carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and sulfur dioxide. Hydrogen, methane and other hydrocarbons are also common in the exhalations. The temperatures of the fumaroles reach 82 - and daily sulfur dioxide emissions have been estimated to be 0.01 - in the major fumaroles.</p><br>
<p>The fumarolic gases are interpreted to originate by the evaporation of an aquifer that is saturated by solfataric components, resulting both in the exhalation of gases and the development of acid hot springs. This aquifer is mostly replenished by precipitation and to a lesser degree by magmatic water. Further, there appears to be a hydrothermal system with temperatures of 270 - under the volcano that fumarolic gases pass through. Overall, fumarolic gases at Tacora undergo substantial interaction with rocks and hydrothermal systems before they reach the surface.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate is responsible for the volcanism of the Andes. This volcanism does not occur along the entire strike of the Andes, but in three selected volcanic belts, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. A fourth volcanic zone, the Austral Volcanic Zone, lies south of the Southern Volcanic Zone. These volcanically active zones are separated by zones where recent volcanism is absent and the subducting plate descends in a much shallower angle.</p><br>
<p>Volcanoes of the Peruvian Central Volcanic Zone generally occur within a narrow belt and are usually associated with normal faults. Most edifices are between 1,500 - high above their basement and consist of lava flows and pyroclastics. Old edifices are far more common in Chile than in Peru, and are especially rare in the northwestern part of Peru&#39;s volcanic zone; this may be the consequence of climatic factors or a later start of volcano-building activity in Peru. About 17 volcanoes are at least fumarolically active in northern Chile, with igneous activity limited to about 6.</p><br>
<p>The earliest volcanic activity in northern Chile occurred between 41 and 66 million years ago, and is linked to an ancient volcanic arc. Later during the Miocene two separate but partially overlapping volcanic episodes occurred, the first of which was dominated by dacitic-rhyolitic ignimbrites and the second by composite volcanoes, with vigorous activity during the Pliocene and Pleistocene.</p><br>
<h3>Local</h3><br>
<p>The basement beneath Tacora is formed by the Arica Altiplano, a formation lying at about 4,200 m altitude that consists of various sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Pliocene to Pleistocene age. Tacora together with Chupiquiña, Nevado El Fraile and Nevado La Monja forms a 10 km long alignment of volcanoes that crosses into Peru and extends from south to north.</p><br>
<h3>Composition</h3><br>
<p>The volcano is constructed by andesite and chiefly dacite in the form of pyroclastic material and lava flows; the latter are predominantly andesitic to basaltic andesite. Minerals contained in the lava flows are biotite, hornblende, olivine, plagioclase and both orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Tacora was active during the Pleistocene and Holocene less than 700,000 years ago, with one rock sample dated by potassium-argon dating giving an age of 490,000 years before present and another of 50,000 years before present on the upper western flank. The crater is probably the most recent manifestation of volcanic activity, as may be lava flows on the southern flank.</p><br>
<p>The volcano supposedly "collapsed" in the 1877 Iquique earthquake, according to secondhand information in a 1903 report on earthquakes in Chile. Single reports of activity in 1930, 1937 and 1950 exist, but the volcano is considered to have no historic eruptions, with fumaroles and seismicity the only ongoing activity.</p><br>
<h2>Mining and sulfur</h2><br>
<p>Sulfur is found between Tacora and Chupiquiña, and it has been quarried on the northwestern flank. Sulfur deposits on Tacora are among the largest in Chile, with thick layers of sulfur covering surfaces of 0.2 - in the crater and on the northern and eastern slopes. Fumarolic activity is to this day producing new sulfur deposits, and some sulfur deposits may have been originally emplaced as liquid sulfur.</p><br>
<p>Such sulfur deposits are relatively common on volcanoes of northern Chile, with less common occurrence in the other volcanically active parts of the Chilean Andes; nearly all higher volcanoes in northern Chile are reported to host the mineral. The sulfur develops chiefly from hydrogen sulfide in steam, which precipitates the mineral in cavities of rocks. Sulfur deposits are typically accompanied by discoloured rocks, since the formation of the sulfur is usually associated with hydrothermal alteration of rock formations. These colours can be spotted from large distances. Aside from sulfur, such deposits commonly contain antimony, arsenic, selenium and tellurium; acid mine drainage occurs on the volcano and has resulted in pollution of the Azufre River that within the Lluta River watershed.</p><br>
<p>The earliest records of the sulfur bodies on Tacora date back to 1637. Sulfur mining in Chile commenced in the late 19th century, driven by Peruvian, English and Chilean prospectors and because the world demand of sulfur by the chemical industry and for other uses increased substantially at that time. During the early 20th century, sulfur mining was widespread in northern Chile and of high global importance, a number of highly pure deposits of sulfur can be found in northern Chile from the Peruvian border south to the Puna de Atacama region.</p><br>
<p>A. Barrón, Filomeno Cerda, Luis Koch and Rosa Landaeta owned sulfur deposits on Tacora in 1897, and sulfur processing plants were installed in 1888 and 1900 close to Tacora. Several companies mined in the region, which later were sometimes taken over by foreign corporations. A number of mines were active on Tacora volcano, with much of the mining infrastructure being present on the upper northwestern slopes of the mountain; this infrastructure includes cableways, offices, workers&#39; camps and treatment plants both on the mountain and on its foot. The deposits were named Aguas Calientes, Ancara, Chislluma, Santa Elena and Villa Industrial, and the total sulfur ore deposits of Tacora in 1952 were estimated to be 2,000,000 t at a minimum; in 1922 Tacora was considered the most important sulfur deposit of the Andes.</p><br>
<p>Transport of sulfur occurred through a dedicated railroad down to Villa Industrial on the Arica-La Paz railway, which served the further transport of the sulfur to Arica, from where it was shipped to all of South America; only after the opening of this railway in 1913 was it possible to use the Tacora deposits to the fullest extent. It is worth noting that the 1929 border treaty between Peru and Chile had explicitly placed Tacora&#39;s sulfur deposits entirely within Chilean territory.</p><br>
<p>The workforce of the Tacora mines was largely indigenous in origin, seeing as only indigenous people were used to the extreme climate conditions on the upper slopes of Tacora. The mining operations also played an important political-cultural role, as they exemplified the imposition of a new, modern culture onto the region.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>The religious worship of mountains is widespread in the Central Andes. In local belief, Tacora and Sajama were two mountains in competition between each other for two women (the Nevados de Payachata). Depending on the specific myth either the two women drove Tacora off and removed the top of the mountain, or Sajama did and injured Tacora; Tacora subsequently which fled, shedding blood and a piece of its heart.</p><br>
<h2>Other</h2><br>
<p>The Astragalus species Astragalus tacorensis is named after the volcano, which is its type locality.</p><br>
<p>The Borborema Plateau  is a plateau in northeastern Brazil which extends across the states of Pernambuco, Paraíba, and Rio Grande do Norte. The plateau is the northeasternmost portion of the Brazilian Highlands and is the most relevant watershed of its region. It ranges approximately 400 km from north to south and 200 km from east to west. More than 100 rivers originate from the plateau, including the Moxotó, Mundaú, Pajeú, Paraíba do Norte, Seridó, and Una.</p><br>
<p>The Borborema Plateau serves as an orographic barrier, despite its relatively low elevation, against the moist easterly winds of the Atlantic Ocean. Areas west of the plateau, which make up part of the sertão, are arid and prone to drought. The Pajeú River, the largest tributary of the São Francisco River, originates from the Borborema.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Borborema Plateau is part of a huge anastomosing shear zone. The plateau is composed primarily of igneous and metamorphic rock.</p><br>
<p>Pizzo Tre Signori is a mountain in the Bergamo Alps, with an elevation of 2,554 m.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name stems from the historical division of the area that it marked, between the State of Milan, the Republic of Venice and the Grisons canton of Switzerland.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is located between the Valtellina, Val Brembana and Valsassina. It represents the tripoint between the Italian provinces of Sondrio, Lecco and Bergamo.</p><br>
<h3>SOIUSA classification</h3><br>
<p>According to the SOIUSA (International Standardized Mountain Subdivision of the Alps) the mountain can be classified in the following way:</p><br>
<p>main part=Eastern Alps</p><br>
<p>major sector=Southern Limestone Alps</p><br>
<p>section=Bergamasque Alps and Prealps</p><br>
<p>subsection=Bergamo Alps</p><br>
<p>supergroup=Orobie Occidentali</p><br>
<p>group=Gruppo del Tre Signori</p><br>
<p>code=II/C-29.I-B.6</p><br>
<p>Creg-ny-Baa, Isle of Man  ) is a right turn on the Snaefell Mountain Course, the motorcycle racing course used since 1911 for the Isle of Man TT races and from 1923 in the Manx Grand Prix races. It is named after the nearby Keppel Hotel or Creg-ny-Baa public house and restaurant.</p><br>
<p>It is located between the 34th and 35th Milestone racing road-side markers on the Snaefell Mountain Course, situated on the primary A18 Snaefell Mountain Road and the side-road junction with the secondary B12 Creg-ny-Baa Back-Road, in the parish of Onchan in the Isle of Man.</p><br>
<p>Creg-ny-Baa continues the steep descent off the Mountain started at preceding Keppel Gate and Kates Cottage situated amidst moorland grazing, towards the arable farmland slopes at a lower altitude and is the first very-heavy braking area on the TT course descent, with an emergency slip-road available adjacent to the pub —Creg-ny-Baa Back-Road&#39;. After the right-bend, the descent continues with a straight run down to Brandish.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>To facilitate racing on the Clypse Course for the 1954 Isle of Man TT Races, during the winter of 1953-54 road widening and re-profiling occurred on the Snaefell Mountain Course at Creg-ny-Baa along with nearby Signpost Corner, Cronk-ny-Mona and the approach to Governor&#39;s Bridge by the Isle of Man Highway Board.</p><br>
<p>Like many corners on the course, the Creg-ny-Baa corner was also part of the Highland Course and Four Inch Course that were used between 1904-1911 for automobile car races, before the current motorcycle course was fully determined. Thus it was part of the Gordon Bennett Trial and Tourist Trophy automobile car races between 1904 and 1911.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Belchenflue Pass  is a high mountain pass in the Jura Mountains between the cantons of Basel-Country and Solothurn.</p><br>
<p>The pass is also called Bölchen by locals. The name came originally from Celtic from the sun god Belenus. The nearby peak of the same name (el. 1099 m.) was an important marker for the tribal calendar establishing the seasons. Along with the peak of the same name in Alsace (Ballon d&#39;Alsace), it allowed the establishment of the winter and summer solstice.</p><br>
<p>As is the case with much of the Jura range, the cliffs are formed of hard oolithic limestone, which has been exposed as the softer stone above it has eroded.</p><br>
<p>The pass forms the divide between the watershed of the Aare in the south and the Ergolz in the north. Both flow into the Rhine. To the east are the Challhöchi and Unterer Hauenstein passes.</p><br>
<p>Bözberg Pass  is a mountain pass in the Jura Mountains in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>It connects the Frick River valley and Brugg and is the shortest road between Basel and Zürich.</p><br>
<p>Two tunnels have been dug under the pass, the Bözberg Rail Tunnel for the Federal Railway and the Bözberg Road Tunnel for the A-3 Autobahn.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In Roman times, the pass was known as Mons Vocetius; it formed an important link between Augusta Raurica and Vindonissa. The Roman road ran somewhat north of the present route, and a stretch of it can be seen near Effingen. It was the site of the final defeat of the Helvetii in AD 69, following their uprising in the civil war of Galba. Aulus Caecina Alienus routed the remnants of the Helvetian forces at Mons Vocetius, after which the Helvetian capital at Aventicum was forced to surrender (Tacitus, Hist. 1.67-69).</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, there were three different roads over the pass, all of which started from Effingen. The northern one followed the route of the Roman road to the ferries at Lauffohr and Stilli, the middle one through Unterbözberg to Brugg, and the southern one through Gallenkirch and Linn to the ferry at Birrenlauf (Schinznach-Bad).</p><br>
<p>The middle route won out, even though it was swampy and steep (with grades up to 20 percent) and too small for large coaches. Commercial traffic took a detour until the city of Bern built a better road between 1773 and 1779.</p><br>
<p>The railroad line was opened in 1875. With the advent of the automobile, the pass developed heavy traffic. In 1995, the year before the completion of the tunnel, 12,500 vehicles crossed the pass per day. Today, only about 3500 vehicles cross the pass each day.</p><br>
<p>Castle Park House is a former country house surrounded by extensive grounds in the market town of Frodsham in Cheshire, England. It is built on the site of Frodsham Castle, and originates from the late 18th century. It was extended in the 1850s, and its gardens were laid out by Edward Kemp. The house passed into the ownership of the local council, and is used for a variety of functions. Its grounds are a public park.</p><br>
<h2>House</h2><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The house is built on the site of Frodsham Castle which burnt down in 1654. In the late 18th century the first house on the site, Park Place, was built by Robert Wainwright Ashley, a lawyer in the town. On his death the house was inherited by his eldest son, Major Daniel Ashley II until his death in 1841. It was then inherited by his brother Reverend Thomas Ashley, but mortgaged to Philip Humberston of Chester. During this time it was leased to Captain Harry Heron.</p><br>
<p>In 1851 it was bought by Joseph Stubs of Warrington, a manufacturer of engineers tools. He started to develop and extend the house and outbuildings and commissioned Edward Kemp to lay out the woods and gardens, which comprised an area of more than 24 acre. The architect for the rebuilding was probably T. M. Penson. Its style is "reserved Italianate". Stubs did not live to see the work completed as he died in 1861. It was bought by auction for over £9,500 (equivalent to £ in ) by Edward Abbott Wright, a Quaker cotton manufacturer from Oldham. The house then came to be known as Castle Park. The Wrights had five children, a boy who died at the age of 14, and four girls. Edwards wife died in 1868 and Edward continued to live in the house, commuting for his business and political interests from Frodsham railway station, until he died at the age of 83 in 1891. Following this, Edward&#39;s two unmarried daughters, Harriet and Emily continued to live in the house until the last remaining daughter, Harriet died in 1931.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>The grandchildren of Edward, who were the beneficiaries of the will, presented the house and 12 acre of ornamental grounds to the Runcorn Rural District Council (of which Frodsham was at that time a part) for the "use, enjoyment and benefit" of the inhabitants. The grounds were used as a public park and the house as the offices of the Rural District Council. After the reorganisation of 1974 the ground floor was used by Vale Royal Borough Council and Frodsham Parish Council.</p><br>
<p>In 2006 the house had a major refurbishment and is now used for a variety of purposes. The house is owned by Cheshire West and Chester Council who provide one stop shop facilities for local council services, and adult learning centre, and for conferences. The archives of the Frodsham and District Local History Group are held in the house.</p><br>
<h2>Outbuildings and gardens</h2><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>Edward Kemp&#39;s plan was for a formal garden containing a conservatory and plant houses to the north of the house. Beyond these were a garden yard, a stable yard, a coach house and a farm yard. To the west of these was a substantial kitchen garden. The other outbuildings included a vinery, with a heated wall, and a smoke house for curing bacon and ham. Joseph Stubs was a collector of rare plants and many of these were planted in what he called the American Garden. In the days of the Wright family a head gardener and seven full-time gardeners were employed and also during this time more outbuildings were constructed beyond the coach house.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>An extensive area of parkland stretches up the hill to the west of the house. Some of the trees planted by Joseph Stubs are still present, although coming to the end of their lives. The formal garden is still there and a garden for the disabled has been constructed by Frodsham Round Table. In the park there are play facilities for children. The coach house has been developed into the Castle Park Arts Centre which has a small café and showrooms for the arts. Other outbuildings are now used as offices for small businesses. The park and gardens have been designated at Grade II in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.</p><br>
<p>Col de Pierre Pertuis  is a mountain pass in the Jura Mountains in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>It connects Sonceboz and Tavannes.</p><br>
<p>The name of the pass comes from the Latin: Petra pertusa, meaning broken rock. The pass road has been dated to the second half of the 1st century AD. A 159 x large inscription on the north side of the road lists Marcus Dunius Paternus, the duumvir of the Helvetii Colony Aventicum, as the builder of the road. This inscription honors the emperor and dates to around 200 AD. It probably refers to the renovation and expansion of the existing road and the widening of the rocky gate leading into the pass.</p><br>
<p>The pass road connected the Aventicum (modern Avenches)-Salodurum (modern Solothurn)-Augusta Raurica road with the Vesontio (modern Besançon)-Epomanduodurum (modern Mandeure)-Kembs road.</p><br>
<p>The pass was first mentioned in a record from 1179 as the boundary between the dioceses of Lausanne and Basel. It remained the border between the powerful bishops until the Protestant Reformation.</p><br>
<p>The first modern road was built in 1752 by the Abbot of Moutier-Grandval Abbey and the Vogt of Erguel. This road linked the cities of Basel and Biel. After the 1797 French victory and the Treaty of Campo Formio, the pass became part of France. After Napoleon&#39;s defeat and the Congress of Vienna, the pass and the surrounding area were assigned to the Canton of Bern in 1815. Bern widened part of the pass road in a section between Bözingen (now part of Biel) and Courtelary.</p><br>
<p>In 1874 a railway tunnel was completed through the pass which linked Sonceboz-Tavannes.</p><br>
<p>The first road that was passable for automobiles was built during World War I by the corps of engineers of the Swiss Army. In 1932, a new road was built employing the jobless due to the Great Depression. In November 1997, a 2100-meter-long tunnel was opened for the A-16 Autobahn.</p><br>
<p>The Robert-Bourassa Reservoir  is a man-made lake in northern Quebec, Canada. It was created in the mid-1970s as part of the James Bay Project and provides the needed water for the Robert-Bourassa and La Grande-2-A generating stations. It has a maximum surface area of 2,835 km&sup2, and a surface elevation between 168 m and 175 m. The reservoir has an estimated volume of 61.7 km3, of which 19.4 km3 is available for hydro-electric power generation.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir is formed behind the Robert-Bourassa Dam that was built across a valley of the La Grande River. This dam was constructed from 1974 to 1978, is 550 m (1,800 ft) wide at its base, and has 23 million m (30 million yd) of fill. There are another 31 smaller dikes keeping the water inside the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Melimoyu is a stratovolcano  with an 8-km-wide, largely buried caldera located about 40 km NW of the town of Puerto Puyuhuapi, in the Aysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Region of Chile. It lies near the northern entrance of the Moraleda Channel.Melimoyu is an active stratovolcano in southern Chile, 40 km NW of the town of Puyuhuapi and 135 km south of Chaiten volcano.</p><br>
<p>The volcano has an 8 km wide ice-filled caldera, which is largely filled by a younger edifice and is drained by a glacier flowing through a gap in the NE caldera rim. The basaltic-andesite volcano is elongated 10 km in an E-W direction and has several cinder cones and a 1 km wide summit crater.</p><br>
<p>Two large explosive eruptions have been identified at Melimoyu volcano from tephra layers (MEL-1 and MEL-2) and been dated to ca. 1800 and 2800 years ago.</p><br>
<p>2010 Seismic unrest</p><br>
<p>A weak seismic swarm occurred at Melimoyu volcano in May and June 2010 and its alert level was raised to 2 (Green) on 8 June, 2010.</p><br>
<p>Increased seismic activity was detected during May. 9 long-period earthquakes were measured on 27 May. The next day 6 long-period earthquakes preceded 2 separate seismic swarms, located 2-12 km and 7-14 km south beneath the summit. All earthquakes were M 2.5 or less.</p><br>
<p>(GVP monthly reports)</p><br>
<p>The summit elevation of Melimoyu is often cited as 2,400 m above sea level, but SRTM analysis suggests the actual height is closer to 2,440 m.</p><br>
<p>The Serra de Ibiapaba  also known as Serra Grande, Chapada da Ibiabapa e Cuesta da Ibiapaba, is an upland in northeastern Brazil, which lies on the boundary of Piauí and Ceará states. The range runs north and south, extending from near the Atlantic coast in the north to connect with the Serra do Araripe, which forms the southern boundary of Ceará. The Poti River bisects the range, and the southern portion, between the Poti and the Serra do Araripe, is also known as the Serra Grande.</p><br>
<p>An attractive region for natural wealth which was already inhabited by various indigenous groups. People who lived already negotiating several natural products with European peoples, such as the French before them the arrival of the Portuguese. Initially inhabited by tabajaras and tapuias Indians, as the Iracema Indian woman who was bathing in the Bica do Ipú (Spout of Ipu) was fairly portrayed in the Iracema book by José de Alencar.</p><br>
<p>In the highlands of Ibiabapa are located the towns of Viçosa do Ceará, Tianguá, Ubajara, São Benedito and Ibiapina. The elevation ranges around 700 to 850 meters above sea level. The Ubajara National Park is located on Serra da Ibiapaba.</p><br>
<p>Sulphur Springs Mountain  is a mountain in southwestern Solano County, California. The slopes can be accessed via hiking trails emanating from Blue Rock Springs Park in the city of Vallejo. Cinnabar deposits were extracted from this location in the early 1900s at Hastings Mine and St. John&#39;s Mine. Both mines are classified as medium priority mine from the standpoint of environmental oversight for California inactive mines. The highest peak on Sulfur Springs Mountain stands at an elevation of 1,112 ft, and affords expansive views of the northern San Francisco Bay as well as the Napa River. The rock outcroppings which occur in the Sulphur Springs area are composed of basaltic lava; however, there are also serpentine outcrops, which soils are known to provide habitat for many rare and endangered species in Northern California.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>The Earth Metrics research found that in excess of 100,000 gallons per day was produced by the principal sulfur spring on this mountain as recently as 1927; by the 1940s this flow was all but attenuated, due to extensive mine shaft construction. Streams that drain the mountain slopes include Rindler Creek and Blue Rock Springs Creek. Blue Rock Springs Creek has been tested for the toxin diazinon and found to have attained an elevated value of 40.9 micrograms per liter (Diazinon is a toxic pesticide associated with golf course maintenance). Prior hydrology modeling has been performed using the HEC-2 formalism to analyze flows in both Rindler Creek and Blue Rock Springs Creek; these studies were conducted to evaluate flooding potential and in order to conduct certain channel alterations associated with urban development on the lower slopes of Sulfur Springs Mountain.</p><br>
<p>The Hastings Mine is classified as a medium priority mine from the standpoint of environmental oversight. In the last inspection of the Hastings Mine in 1997, sediments in a drainage below the mine were found to contain ten parts per million of mercury; furthermore, spring water below the mine exhibited a water concentration of.31 micrograms per liter (a violation of the State of California standard for receiving waters of.05 micrograms per liter). Miles of underground shafts were driven in the course of working the quicksilver deposits in the area.</p><br>
<p>Swarkestone Bridge is a medieval bridge crossing the River Trent between the villages of Swarkestone and Stanton by Bridge, about 6 miles south of Derby. It is currently Grade I Listed and a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The bridge was built in the 13th century to cross the river and the surrounding marshes. The first mention of the bridge was in 1204 (known as “Ponte de Cordy”), but in part has been modified, repaired and rebuilt; the majority of the existing bridge dates from the late 13th and early 14th century.</p><br>
<p>The bridge and causeway was part of the King&#39;s highway between Derby and Coventry. This had been the main route between the two cities since before the Norman Conquest, and there had been a river crossing on the site.</p><br>
<p>Swarkestone bridge is, in total, just under a mile long and has 17 arches (six of which have been unaltered since medieval times); it is built primarily of local sandstone. It is the longest stone bridge in England, and the longest inland bridge in England.</p><br>
<p>The original bridge is thought to have been made of wood, and was then rebuilt in stone at the end of the 13th century. Three Royal grants of tolls for bridge repair were granted between 1324 and 1347.</p><br>
<p>The section of the bridge crossing the main flow of the river was destroyed in floods in 1795 and was replaced between 1795 and 1797, at a cost of £3,550, with the present section of bridge.</p><br>
<p>The bridge has proved itself of strategic importance throughout the ages. It was for about 300 years the Midlands&#39; main crossing of the Trent, and the only crossing between Burton-on-Trent and Nottingham. The road over the bridge was the main road into Derby from the South until the 18th century. In January 1643, it was the location of the minor battle during the English Civil War. In the Battle of Swarkestone Bridge the bridge was defended by the Royalists against the Parliamentarians, but the outnumbered Royalists lost the day.</p><br>
<p>In 1745, Swarkestone Bridge was the southernmost point of Bonny Prince Charlie&#39;s advance on London, in his attempt to claim the British throne. Finding no reports of support from the south, they turned back to Derby and then retreated to Scotland and their final defeat at the Battle of Culloden. During the Second World War, it was defended by gun emplacements and tank traps in case of a German invasion.</p><br>
<h2>The bridge today</h2><br>
<p>The bridge has been widened several times (the first in 1799 and recorded works in 1808, 1830 and 1852), but is undersized for modern traffic; in several places it is scarcely two-lanes and cars are unable to pass at several points.</p><br>
<p>Though there is a weight limit of 7.5 tonnes, the walls of the bridge often take damage from traffic. In 2017, electronic weight sensors were placed at either end of the bridge to deter vehicles over the 7.5 tonne limit.</p><br>
<h2>Local legends</h2><br>
<p>The bridge is the subject of several local legends. Its construction was said to have been financed by the two Bellamont sisters. Both had become engaged and were to throw a joint celebration; their fiancés, however, had to meet with the local barons on the far side of the river. Following a storm the Trent became swollen. Eager to return to their brides-to-be and their party, the men tried to ford the river on horseback. Both were swept away and drowned. The Bellamont sisters commissioned the bridge so that no one else would suffer the tragedy they had suffered. Neither sister married and both died in poverty having exhausted their fortune on building the bridge.</p><br>
<p>The bridge is supposed to be haunted by the ghosts of the two Bellamont sisters. Others have alleged the bridge is haunted by Bonny Prince Charlies troops. The most commonly reported phenomenon is the sound of horses approaching at speed when there is nothing about. Another legend says that the river must claim 3 lives every year in order for it to be pacified&#39;. The bridge is a local accident black-spot, with 15 reported road-traffic accidents between 2008 and 2010.</p><br>
<p>Mentolat is an ice-filled, 6 km wide caldera in the central portion of Magdalena Island, Aisén Province, Chilean Patagonia. This caldera sits on top of a stratovolcano which has generated lava flows and pyroclastic flows. The caldera is filled with a glacier.</p><br>
<p>Little is known of the eruptive history of Mentolat, but it is thought to be young, with a possible eruption in the early 18th century that may have formed lava flows on the western slope. The earliest activity occurred during the Pleistocene, and Mentolat has had some major explosive eruptions during the Holocene.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology and alternative spellings</h2><br>
<p>The etymology of Mentolat has been tentatively linked to Men (o) lat, which in the Chono language means "to decipher". Mentolat was referred to as Montalat on a map of the early 20th century, and other spellings such as Menlolat, Montalat, Montolot and Matalot have been identified.</p><br>
<h2>Geomorphology and geography</h2><br>
<p>Mentolat lies on the central part of Isla Magdalena of southern Chile, close to the town of Puerto Cisnes in the Aysen Region, from which it is separated by the Puyuhuapi strait. Other towns in the area are: La Junta, Puerto Gala, Puerto Gaviota and Puyuhuapi. Like most volcanoes in the region, Mentolat is far away from roads and difficult to access.</p><br>
<p>Mentolat is located in the Southern Volcanic Zone, a 1,400 km long volcanic arc with about 40 volcanoes active during the late Quaternary. The Southern Volcanic Zone is typically subdivided into four separate segments; Mentolat belongs in the southern segment. Some large volcanic eruptions have occurred in the Southern Volcanic Zone including the Pleistocene Diamante caldera eruption at Maipo and, during historical times, the 1932 eruption of Cerro Azul and the 1991 eruption of Cerro Hudson.</p><br>
<p>Mentolat is a stratovolcano which has erupted lava flows and pyroclastic flows, and covers a surface area of 204 km&sup2;. The total volume of the edifice has been estimated to be about 46.3 km3, or 88.2 km3. A 6 km wide caldera is filled with ice, which covered a surface area of 3.35 km&sup2; in 2011. In 1979, the glacier covered a surface area almost 2.5 times larger. Alternatively, the caldera may be filled with a lava dome, or an ice covered lava dome. The caldera may have formed during one of Mentolat&#39;s large explosive eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The composition of the rocks ranges from basaltic andesite to andesite. Phenocrysts contained in Mentolat&#39;s rocks include: clinopyroxene, olivine, orthopyroxene and plagioclase. Mentolat tephras have noticeably lower potassium contents than the tephras of other volcanoes in the region.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Nazca Plate at the Peru-Chile Trench subducts beneath the South America Plate at an average rate of 6.6 cm/yr. This subduction occurs at an angle and has generated the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone which runs along the volcanic arc. Where the Chile Rise intersects the trench the Nazca Plate ends and the Antarctic Plate begins. This plate also subducts farther south beneath the South America Plate but at a lower pace of 1.85 cm/yr. Part of the Nazca Plate has been shoved over the South America Plate at the Taitao Peninsula resulting in the formation of the Taitao ophiolite.</p><br>
<p>The Andes are a site of volcanic activity, which is usually subdivided into four separate volcanic zones: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. These volcanic zones are separated by gaps where no recent volcanic activity has occurred. These gaps are not static; the gap separating the Austral and the Southern Volcanic Zones has been moving northward for the past 15-20 million years.</p><br>
<p>More volcanoes in the neighbourhood of Mentolat include Melimoyu and Cay to the north, Maca and Cerro Hudson to the south, as well as several monogenetic volcanoes. South of Hudson, the Chile Rise subducts in the trench. Volcanic activity is absent in the 500 km long area, as its subduction disrupts the slab. These volcanoes are part of the Southern Volcanic Zone, while the volcanoes south of this gap belong to the Austral Volcanic Zone. Changes in magma composition are also noticeable across the gap; the volcanoes of the southernmost Southern Volcanic Zone have erupted basalt and basaltic andesite with subordinate andesite, dacite and rhyolite, while the volcanoes of the Austral Volcanic Zone have erupted adakitic hornblende andesites and dacites.</p><br>
<p>A major geological structure in the region is the Northern Patagonian Batholith. This structure, formed by plutonic rocks including granodiorite and tonalite, is crossed north-south by the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone and surrounded by metamorphic rocks west and volcanic rocks east of the batholith.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and vegetation</h2><br>
<p>Temperatures in the region range from 8 - and precipitation can reach 7,500 mm thanks to the orographic precipitation triggered by the Andes. The vegetation of the area is formed by evergreen temperate rainforests.</p><br>
<p>Until 17,800 years before present, the region southeast of Hudson was covered by the glaciers of the last ice age. Their retreat left a series of lakes that caught tephra deposited by volcanic activity.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Eruptive activity at Mentolat has been ongoing since the Pleistocene, with the earliest explosive eruptions occurring over 17,340 years ago. An eruption during the late Glacial formed the MENo tephra. The volcanic activity has been inferred from tephra layers in lakes and outcrops.</p><br>
<p>A major eruption of Mentolat occurred during the Holocene. This eruption generated a 1.4 km3 large ash deposit, the MEN1 ash, which extends southeast of the volcano. Grey pumice and scoria were deposited by this eruption, which was preceded by ash fall and ended with the deposition of lapilli. The MEN1 eruption was andesitic. The eruption may have occurred 7,690 ± 60 years ago, 5,010 ± 50 years BCE, 7,710 ± 120 years ago, another date is 7,518 years before present, as determined by radiocarbon dating. The MEN1 ash has been attributed to a more recent eruption, between 2,510 ± 30 and 3,890 ± 30 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Less than 6,960 years before present, a basaltic andesite-andesite ash of yellow ochre colour was erupted from Mentolat. The yellow-grey MEN2 ash has been dated by radiocarbon dating to be over 90 ± 30 years before present. This eruption had a minimum volume of 3.7 km3. Additional tephra layers indicate eruptions less than 2,560 and 4,320 years ago, along with a number of smaller eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Early in the 18th century, Mentolat erupted and formed lava flows on its western flank. These are Mentolat&#39;s best preserved volcanic deposits. The eruption deposited lapilli pumice. No historical records of activity exist, however, although reports by Serrano in the 18th century may refer to a lava flow from Mentolat. The most recent eruption may have been in 1850, or 1710 ± 5.</p><br>
<p>Large explosive eruptions in the southern segment of the Southern Volcanic Zone occur on average every 725 years, and tephras from volcanoes in the Southern Volcanic Zone have been transported over large distances. The largest Holocene volcanic eruption of the Southern Andes occurred 6,700 years before present at Cerro Hudson. Tephra layers found at Mallín El Embudo have been attributed to Mentolat, as well as to Melimoyu and Cerro Hudson.</p><br>
<h2>Threats</h2><br>
<p>Large explosive eruptions have occurred in the Southern Volcanic Zone; at least 25 large eruptions occurred in the Holocene; similar, future eruptions could have regional or even hemispheric effects as observed with the 2012 Puyehue-Cordon Caulle eruption. The town of Puerto Cisnes could experience ash falls of over 10 cm, as could other towns such as Coyhaique. SERNAGEOMIN publishes a volcano hazard level for Mentolat.</p><br>
<p>Ash fall from volcanic eruptions affects the ecosystem. Trees lose their leaves, plants in the forest understory are buried, the forest canopy opens and plants which do not tolerate shadowing can grow.</p><br>
<p>Further hazards exist in the form of snowpack on about half of the volcanoes; under the influence of pyroclastic flows, the snowpack can melt, generating dangerous lahars such as the one generated by the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia. This eruption claimed 23,000 fatalities, and lahars are a major cause of volcanic eruption associated fatalities.</p><br>
<p>Nevados de Chillán is a group of stratovolcanoes located in the Andes of the Bío Bío Region, Chile, and is one of the most active volcanoes in the region. It consists of three overlapping peaks, 3,212 m Cerro Blanco  at the northwest and 3,089 m Volcán Viejo  at the southeast, with Volcán Nuevo in the middle. Volcán Viejo was the main active vent during the 17th-19th centuries, and the new Volcán Nuevo lava dome complex formed between 1906 and 1945, eventually growing to exceed Viejo in height by the mid 1980s.</p><br>
<p>This complex contains two subcomplexes: Cerro Blanco and Las Termas. The subcomplex Cerro Blanco includes the volcanoes Santa Gertrudis, Gato, Cerro Blanco, Colcura, Calfú Pichicalfú and Baños. The subcomplex Las Termas includes the volcanoes Shangri-La, Nuevo, Arrau, Viejo, Chillán y Pata de Perro. In addition, near of the complex there are two piroclastic satellite cones, the volcanoes Las Lagunillas and Parador.</p><br>
<p>Lenzerheide is the common name of a passage past a high mountain pass in the Alps in the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland, reaching summit at 1549 m between Valbella and Parpan, approximately 5 kilometers south of the resort of Lenzerheide.</p><br>
<p>The road connects Chur in the valley of the Rhine and Tiefencastel in the valley of the Albula, which is actually a tributary to the Rhine. The pass nevertheless offered a shortcut which additionally avoided the gorge "Schinschlucht" with its difficult terrain in the past. Nowadays most traffic to Tiefencastel would use the A13 motorway to Thusis to get to Tiefencastel on a main road.</p><br>
<p>The Lenzerheide road has a maximum grade of 11 percent and is open year-round, though road conditions frequently necessitate winter tires, especially between December and March.</p><br>
<p>Due to the local settlements nobody ever bothered to call the summit near Lenzerheide a mountain pass nor would an official document call it a pass. It will also not appear on road pass opening charts.</p><br>
<p>The mountain Piz Scalottas (el 2321 m.) offers a good view to overlook both routes via Lenzerheide or the Schinschlucht gorge. If you climbed the Lenzerheide pass road by mountain bike, the chairlift to Piz Scalottas will transport your mountain bike for free to the summit.</p><br>
<p>Monte Ceneri is a mountain pass in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. It connects the Magadino plain and the Vedeggio valley across the Lugano Prealps at an elevation of 554 m above sea level. In so doing, it provides the most direct route between the cities of Bellinzona and Lugano. Despite its name , Monte Ceneri is the lowest point on the crest between Monte Tamaro and the Camoghè.</p><br>
<p>Two tunnels have been dug under Monte Ceneri, the Monte Ceneri Road Tunnel for the A2 motorway and the Monte Ceneri Rail Tunnel for the Gotthard railway. A new rail tunnel, the Ceneri Base Tunnel, is currently under construction that will connect Camorino near Bellinzona and Vezia near Lugano.</p><br>
<p>The pass is situated in the recently created municipality of Monteceneri and the district of Lugano. The Monte Ceneri radio transmitter is located close to the pass.</p><br>
<p>The larger part of Ticino, which lies to the north of Monte Ceneri and includes the valley of the Ticino river and the cities of Bellinzona and Locarno, is often referred to as the Sopraceneri (above the Ceneri). The smaller part to the south, which includes Lugano, Mendrisio and Chiasso, takes the name Sottoceneri (under the Ceneri).</p><br>
<p>Brim Fell is a fell in the English Lake District. It stands to the west of Coniston village in the southern part of the District.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Coniston (or Furness) Fells form the watershed between Coniston Water and the Duddon valley to the west. The range begins in the north at Wrynose Pass and runs south for around 10 miles before petering out at Broughton in Furness on the Duddon Estuary. Alfred Wainwright in his influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells took only the northern half of the range as Lakeland proper, consigning the lower fells to the south to a supplementary work The Outlying Fells of Lakeland. Brim Fell occupies a position in the northern section and therefore qualifies as one of the 214 Wainwrights. Later guidebook writers have chosen to include the whole range in their main volumes.</p><br>
<p>The higher northern part of the Coniston range can be likened to an inverted Y with Brim Fell at the connecting point of the three arms. To the north are Swirl How, Great Carrs and Grey Friar, south east is the short spur terminating at The Old Man of Coniston and to the south west the range continues over Dow Crag to the lower hills beyond.</p><br>
<p>Brim Fell is unusual in having no footing on the valley floor on either side of the ridge. On the east its boundary streams converge at 800 ft and the flanks of Coniston Old Man and Wetherlam continue to the lake. Above the Duddon, Brim Fell is nipped off by Dow Crag and Grey Friar at an even greater altitude. The area of the fell is therefore small, but full of interest.</p><br>
<p>The western slopes are relatively smooth and fall to Tarn Head Beck. This runs parallel to the ridge and is the main feeder of Seathwaite Tarn, a reservoir in a side valley of the Duddon system. This was originally a much smaller waterbody, but was dammed early in the 20th century to provide drinking water for the Barrow-in-Furness area. The dam is almost 400 yards long and is concrete cored with slate buttresses, the resulting depth of the tarn being around 80 ft. Water is not abstracted directly from the tarn, but flows some distance downriver to an off-take weir. On the slopes of Brim Fell, above the head of the reservoir, are the remains of Seathwaite Tarn Mine. This was worked for copper in the mid-19th century, and also appears as a location in the novel The Plague Dogs by Richard Adams.</p><br>
<p>The ridge north from Brim Fell narrows to the depression at Levers Hawse (2,250 ft) before climbing again over the rougher ground of Great How Crags to the summit of Swirl How. To the south, trending south east across a broad plateau is The Old Man of Coniston, the reascent being negligible. Halfway between Brim Fell and The Old Man a further ridge branches off due west, dropping steeply to Goats Hawse (2,130 ft), before swinging south around Goats Water to Dow Crag.</p><br>
<p>In contrast to the western slopes and ridge-top grass promenade, the Coniston face is all crag. A short high level spur juts out from the summit, ending in the shattered cliffs of Raven Tor. To either side of this promontory is a corrie tarn, Low Water to the south and Levers Water to the north. Low Water is the smaller, its depth increased by a stone faced dam built by the nearby slate quarries. The outflow drops via a fine waterfall to join Levers Water Beck a mile down stream. Levers Water was also dammed in times past for industrial use (in this case the Coniston Coppermines), but now provides domestic supply for Coniston village. The stone faced dam has increased its depth to some 125 ft. Running parallel to the ridge below Low Water is an unusual lateral valley, named "Boulder Valley" on Ordnance Survey maps due to the number of large erratics on its floor.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The summit is formed from the bedded andesitic tuff and andesite of the Duddon Hall Formation. Working northwards up the ridge the rhyolitic tuffs and lapilli tuffs of the Long Top Member are revealed. Rhyolitic tuffs also make up the Paddy End Member in the Coppermines Valley.</p><br>
<p>The valley of Levers Water Beck below Brim Fell holds part of the Coniston Coppermines, a huge complex of shafts and tunnels extending over a square mile. The mine was at its most productive in the 1850s, declining in output until closure in 1915. Since then there have been occasional attempts at reopening, principally in 1954, but tourism has gradually taken over as the main activity in the valley. The mines exploited a number of veins, the copper-bearing mineral chalcopyrite being the main ore, although some nickel, cobalt and lead were also extracted. The Paddy End section of the mine on the lower slopes of Brim Fell was the most productive, with levels passing beneath the bed of Levers Water. Simons Nick, a large (and dangerous) multi-shaft opening above the dam is the most obvious remaining feature.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of Brim Fell bears a fine slate cairn on grass, with a second big cairn to the north east. The views are extensive although the long whale-backed ridge tends to limit the foreground.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Direct ascents are perhaps unusual, most walkers traversing from "The Old Man" to Swirl How, but perfectly possible. The easiest access is from Coniston, climbing via Levers Water to Levers Hawse. Pathless ascents of Raven Tor can also be made from either side for a wilder finish. The Walna Scar Road (Byway open to all traffic) gives access to Goat&#39;s Hawse from either side of the ridge and this is the easiest route from the Duddon. Note that a right of way shown on Ordnance Survey maps descending west from Levers Hawse to Seathwaite Tarn does not exist as a path on the ground.</p><br>
<p>The San Mateo Mountains are a mountain range in Socorro County, in west-central New Mexico in the southwestern United States. The highest point in the range is West Blue Mountain, at 10,336 ft . The range runs roughly north-south and is about 40 miles  long. It lies about 25 miles  north-northwest of the town of Truth or Consequences and about 30 miles  southwest of Socorro. They should not be confused with the identically named range in Cibola and McKinley counties, north of this range.</p><br>
<p>Most of the San Mateo Mountains are within the Magdalena Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest. There are two designated wilderness areas in the range, the Apache Kid Wilderness 44,650 acre and the Withington Wilderness 18,869 acre. There are three Inventoried Roadless Areas (IRA) within the San Mateos: the Apache Kid Contiguous IRA (67,570 acres), the San Jose IRA (16,957 acres), and the White Cap IRA (8,039).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The San Mateo Mountains are a fault-block range, made of volcanic rock from the Datil-Mogollon Volcanic Field, of age between twenty-eight and twenty-four million years. They form part of the western edge of the Rio Grande Rift Valley. They also form the eastern border of the Plains of San Agustin, site of the world-renowned Very Large Array.</p><br>
<p>Significant summits include:</p><br>
<h2>History and Culture</h2><br>
<p>The history of the San Mateo Mountains is intimately linked with the rich history of the surrounding area. Basham noted in his report documenting the archeological history of the Cibola’s Magdalena Ranger District that “he heritage resources on the district are diverse and representative of nearly every prominent human evolutionary event known to anthropology. Evidence for human use of district lands date back 14,000 years to the Paleoindian period providing glimpses into the peopling of the New World and megafaunal extinction.“</p><br>
<p>Much of the now Magdalena Ranger District were a province of the Apache. Bands of Apache effectively controlled the Magdalena-Datil region from the seventeenth century until they were defeated in the Apache Wars in the late nineteenth century. Famous for defying relocation orders in 1879 and leading his warriors “on a two-year reign of terror before he was killed,” Victorio is at least as highly regarded as Geronimo or Cochise among Apaches. Perhaps most famous outlaw was the Apache Kid whose supposed grave lies within the Apache Kid Wilderness. Stories of depredations by the Apache Kid, and of his demise, became so common and dramatic that in southwestern folklore they may be exceeded only by tales of lost Spanish gold. Native Americans lingered in the San Mateos well into the 1900s. We know this by an essay written by Aldo Leopold in 1919 where he documents stumbling upon the remains of a recently abandoned Indian hunting camp.</p><br>
<p>A mining rush followed the Apache wars – gold, silver, and copper were found in the mountains. It wasn’t until this time that extensive use of the area by non-Native Americans occurred. While some mining activity, involving gold, silver, and copper, occurred in the southern part of the range near the end of the nineteenth century, the prospecting/mining remnants are barely visible today due to collapse, topographic screening, and vegetation regrowth. While miners combed the mountains for mineral riches during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, stockmen drove tens of thousands of sheep and cattle to stockyards at the village of Magdalena, then linked by rail with Socorro. In fact, the last regularly used cattle trail in the United States stretched 125 miles westward from Magdalena. The route was formally known as the Magdalena Livestock Driveway, but more popularly known to cowboys and cattlemen as the Beefsteak Trail. The trail began use in 1865 and its peak was in 1919. The trail was used continually until trailing gave way to trucking and the trail official closed in 1971.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The range is home to mountain lions, black bears, elk, mule deer, antelope, goshawk, wild turkey and contains several thousand acres of critical habitat for the threatened Mexican spotted owl. Ponderosa, oak, aspen, spruce, fir, and all 3 juniper types are found in the San Mateos. The San Mateos were listed in a 2004 report by The Nature Conservancy as a key conservation area due to their ecological diversity and species richness and are important breeding ground for mountain lions.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The area provides phenomenal hiking, camping, backpacking, hunting, horseback-riding, stargazing opportunities. There are four developed campsites in/near the San Mateos, including the springtime, Luna Park, Bear Trap, and Hughes Mills campgrounds. Two of these campgrounds (the Bear Trap and Hughes Mills) provide hiking access to the Mt. Withington Lookout.</p><br>
<p>The Cedars of God  is one of the last vestiges of the extensive forests of the Lebanon cedar, that once thrived across Mount Lebanon in ancient times. Their timber was exploited by the Phoenicians, Israelites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Romans, and Turks. The wood was prized by Egyptians for shipbuilding; the Ottoman Empire used the cedars in railway construction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountains of Lebanon were once shaded by thick cedar forests and the tree is the symbol of the country. After centuries of persistent deforestation, the extent of these forests has been markedly reduced.</p><br>
<p>It was once said that a battle occurred between the demigods and the humans over the beautiful and divine forest of Cedar trees near southern Mesopotamia. This forest, once protected by the Sumerian god Enlil, was completely bared of its trees when humans entered its grounds 4700 years ago, after winning the battle against the guardians of the forest, the demigods. The story also tells that Gilgamesh used cedar wood to build his city.</p><br>
<p>Over the centuries, cedar wood was exploited by the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Romans, Israelites and Turks. The Egyptians used cedar resin for the mummification process and the cedar wood for some of “their first hieroglyph bearing rolls of papyrus”. The emperor Hadrian claimed these forests as an imperial domain, and destruction of the cedar forests was temporarily halted.</p><br>
<p>Concern for the biblical "cedars of God" goes back to 1876, when the 102 hectare grove was surrounded by a high stone wall, paid for by Queen Victoria, to protect saplings from browsing by goats. Nevertheless, during World War I, British troops used cedar to build railroads.</p><br>
<p>Time, along with the exploitation of the Cedars’ wood, has led to a decrease in the number of cedar trees in Lebanon. However, Lebanon is still widely known for its cedar tree history, as they are the emblem of the country and the symbol of the Lebanese flag. The remaining trees survive in mountainous areas, where they are the dominant tree species. This is the case on the slopes of Mount Makmel that tower over the Kadisha Valley, where the Cedars of God are found at an altitude of more than 2,000 m. Four trees have reached a height of 35 m, with their trunks reaching 12 -.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>In 1998, the Cedars of God were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>The forest is rigorously protected. It is possible to tour it escorted by an authorized guide. After a preliminary phase in which the land was cleared of detritus, the sick plants treated, and the ground fertilized, the "Committee of the Friends of the Cedar Forest" initiated a reforestation program in 1985. These efforts will only be appreciable in a few decades due to the slow growth of cedars. In these areas the winter offers incredible scenery, and the trees are covered with a blanket of snow.</p><br>
<h2>Literature references</h2><br>
<h3>Religious texts</h3><br>
<p>The Cedar Forest of ancient Mesopotamian religion appears in several sections of the Epic of Gilgamesh.</p><br>
<p>The Lebanon Cedar is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Example verses include:</p><br>
<p>* "Open thy doors, O Lebanon, that the fire may devour thy cedars. Howl, fir tree; for the cedar is fallen; because the mighty are spoiled: howl, O ye oaks of Bashan; for the forest of the vintage is come down." (Zechariah 11:1, 2)</p><br>
<p>* "He moves his tail like a cedar; The sinews of his thighs are tightly knit." (Job 40:17)</p><br>
<p>* "The priest shall take cedarwood and hyssop and scarlet stuff, and cast them into the midst of the burning of the heifer" (Numbers 19:6)</p><br>
<p>* "The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars; the Lord breaks in pieces the cedars of Lebanon" (Psalm 29:5)</p><br>
<p>* "The righteous flourish like the palm tree and grow like the cedar in Lebanon" (Psalm 92:12)</p><br>
<p>* "I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia, the myrtle, and the olive" (Isaiah 41: 19)</p><br>
<p>* "Behold, I will liken you to a cedar in Lebanon, with fair branches and forest shade" (Ezekiel 31:3)</p><br>
<p>* "I destroyed the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height of the cedars" (Amos 2:9)</p><br>
<p>*"The trees of the Lord are watered abundantly, the cedars of Lebanon that he planted." (Psalm 104:16 NRSV)</p><br>
<p>*King Solomon made cedar as plentiful as the sycamore-fig trees in the foothills. (1 Kings 10:27, NIV, excerpt)</p><br>
<h3>Literary texts</h3><br>
<p>Alphonse de Lamartine visited the place during his travel in Leban (1832–33), and mentioned the cedars in some texts. Henry Bordeaux came also in 1922 and wrote, Yamilé, a story about the place.</p><br>
<p>The Broad Street Market, founded in 1860, is located in the Midtown neighborhood of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in the United States. Originally established on Broad Street  by the Verbeke family, it is today one of the oldest continuously operating farmers markets in the country.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, the market helped to feed the 300,000 Union soldiers who mustered through nearby Camp Curtin.</p><br>
<p>The market is actually two separate structures. The older Stone Market house was completed in 1863. The Brick Market house was built between 1874 and 1878. For many years, a Wood Market extended between these two remaining buildings.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, ownership of the market was transferred to the City of Harrisburg, which operated the market until 1996 under a city-appointed agency. In 1996, the city completed a $2.5 million award-winning restoration of the Market complex, which was designed to reposition it as a successful and growth-oriented retail enterprise. In 1999, the City completed an additional $380,000 improvement to the stone market house.</p><br>
<p>It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The Brown Grand Theatre is a community-based historical theatre dedicated to enhancing cultural life in North Central Kansas in the United States. The theatre is a majestic opera house located in Concordia, Kansas and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The theatre has been called "the most elegant theater between Kansas City and Denver" and to this day plays host to many popular events in the region.</p><br>
<p>In November 1905, Concordia resident Colonel Napoleon Bonaparte Brown announced to the townspeople his plans to build a fully outfitted opera house for Concordia. Renowned Kansas City theatre architect Carl Boller was hired to prepare the design drawings and the blueprints.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The construction of the theatre was under the direction of Brown&#39;s son, Earl Van Dom Brown. Young Earl researched and gathered ideas by touring more than thirty opera houses in Kansas and Missouri. Native Concordian W.T. Short (already known for his work on the Brown family home Brownstone Hall and other buildings in the area) was hired as the construction supervisor. Ground breaking ceremonies took place on April 3, 1906.</p><br>
<h3>Opening Night</h3><br>
<p>At its completion, The Brown Grand Theatre stood sixty-feet high and spanned one-hundred-twenty feet in length. Renaissance in style and overall design, the $40,000 structure became a priceless jewel amid rare aesthetic riches in a small town in start of the 20th century mid-America. The formal opening of the Brown Grand Theatre took place September 17, 1907 with the production The Vanderbilt Cup (a comedy set against the backdrop of the auto racing trophy Vanderbilt Cup.</p><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>During the next four years, the theater prospered until 1910, when N.B. Brown died. Four months later, his popular son Earl died. According to theater lore, Earl&#39;s ghost haunts the theater, especially during the "opening" season. The theatre operated under various management until 1925 when it was sold to the Concordia Amusement Company.</p><br>
<h3>Motion Picture Years</h3><br>
<p>From 1925 to 1974, the Brown Grand was converted to show silent pictures and later talking pictures. The theater was remodeled several times (including air conditioning and concessions) to bring the theater more in line with the times.</p><br>
<p>The last movie to be shown at the Brown Grand was the world premiere of The Devil and LeRoy Bassett which was written and directed by Robert E. Pearson, a native of Concordia. Soon after, the theater underwent extensive restoration led by grassroots community efforts.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Restoration was completed in 1980. The theatre was returned to its original 1907 splendor with 650 seats. The Brown Grand Theatre now serves as a tourist attraction and performing arts / community center for Concordia and North Central Kansas.</p><br>
<p>Restoration included replacement seats, restoration of all walls and artistic work, updating of lighting system, addition of air conditioning, and many other enhancements. The restoration project has put the theatre today to be unique among theatres.</p><br>
<p>On September 17, 2007 the Brown Grand celebrated its 100th birthday with community events lasting over several days. The event coincided with the opening of the National Orphan Train Museum also in Concordia.</p><br>
<h2>Drop curtain</h2><br>
<h3>Original</h3><br>
<p>On opening night in 1907, Earl Brown unveiled a magnificent drop curtain reproduction of a Horace Vernet painting. The curtain, entitled Napoleon at Austerlitz, was presented as a gift to Colonel Brown from his son in recognition of his father&#39;s contribution to the community and to the Brown Grand Theatre, his crowning achievement.</p><br>
<p>The original curtain still hangs above the stage but saw little use during the theatre&#39;s motion picture years. A 1967 tornado caused extensive water damage to the roof over the stage. The rain that accompanied the tornado permanently stained and streaked the already faded and brittle painting.</p><br>
<h3>Replacement</h3><br>
<p>Taking an extreme interest in the Napoleon curtain, Marion Cook (a member of the Brown Grand Board of Directors at the time) donated a new replacement drop curtain. The new curtain was painted by Twin City Scenic Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota—the same firm that had painted the original.</p><br>
<p>For the artistic work on the drop, sought-after scenic painter Robert Braun was hired to do the Napoleon battle scene, and Michael Russell, president of the company, came out of retirement to paint the bordering green draperies and gold and bronze frame around the picture.</p><br>
<p>The two artists requested a color photograph of the original Vernet work Battle of Wagram which hangs in the Hall of Battles in the Palace of Versailles near Paris.</p><br>
<p>Galehead Mountain is a mountain located in Grafton County, New Hampshire. The mountain is part of the Twin Range of the White Mountains. Galehead is flanked to the east by South Twin Mountain, and to the west by Mount Garfield. The summit is reached by the Frost Trail which departs from Galehead Hut . There are several ways to reach the hut from one&#39;s car, the Gale River Trail from the northwest being the most direct.</p><br>
<p>Galehead is so named because it is located above the headwaters of the North Branch of the Gale River. The north face of Galehead drains into the North Branch, thence via the Gale River into the Ammonoosuc and Connecticut rivers, and into Long Island Sound in Connecticut. The southeast face of Galehead drains into Twin Brook, thence into the Franconia Branch of the East Branch of the Pemigewasset River, through the Pemigewasset Wilderness, thence into the Pemigewasset and Merrimack rivers, and into the Gulf of Maine in Massachusetts. The west face of Galehead also drains into the Franconia Branch.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail, a 2,170 mi National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, crosses the northern face of Galehead, 0.2 mi north — and 400 ft below — the summit. The Appalachian Mountain Club&#39;s Galehead Hut is located in the col between Galehead and South Twin.</p><br>
<p>Baliceaux is a privately owned island by a Vincentian family and is one of the Grenadines islands which lie between the Caribbean islands of Saint Vincent and Grenada. Politically, it is part of the nation of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This island was the site where the English army banished about 5000 Black Caribs following the defeat of Carib Chief Joseph Chatoyer in the 1790s. Half of them died in this concentration camp. The others were deported to the island of Roatán, Honduras. Their descendants live today as the Garifuna people in Honduras, Belize, Guatemala, Nicaragua and in the USA.</p><br>
<p>As a mark of respect, Baliceaux is visited yearly by Caribs and Government officials to remember.</p><br>
<p>The island had a small area where the Black Caribs that died from disease were buried that has since been eroded away by wind and sea. Very little remains of the area where the people were buried.</p><br>
<p>The Tobago Cays are an archipelago located in the Southern Grenadines comprising five small islands and extensive coral reefs. The cays - Petit Rameau, Petit Bateau, Baradal, Petit Tabac and Jamesby - are all uninhabited and are a popular tourism destination.</p><br>
<p>The Tobago Cays are now the key element of the run by the Saint Vincent and the Grenadines government. The Marine Park consists of a 1,400 acre sand-bottom lagoon which encompasses the five cays, the inhabited island of Mayreau and the 4 km Horseshoe Reef. The Marine Park was listed as a regionally significant ecosystem under the SPAW Protocol in December 2014</p><br>
<p>The most extensive and well-developed coral reef complexes in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines occur on shallow shelves around the windward sides of Mayreau and Union Islands and the Cays themselves. In addition, principal vegetation types include beach vegetation and dry forest. With the exception of a small mangrove in Petit Rameau and salt pond in Mayreau, there are no wetlands in the Cays.</p><br>
<p>Major users of the area include: cruise ships (an estimated 50,000 visitors each year of which 10,000 visit the Cays); yachts (an estimated 3,000 yachts anchor in the lagoon each year); day charters (from nearby hotels); sport divers and snorkelers; and fishing enthusiasts.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Grenadines are geologically older than St. Vincent and are situated on an extensive shallow bank of volcanic origin – known as the southern Lesser Antilles arc platform (SLAAP). The SLAAP is a product of Miocene uplift (23–16 Ma) and characterized by Eocene to Pliocene extrusive to intrusive igneous rocks along with sedimentary rocks such as limestone, marl, and chert, and epiclastic arc-derived volcaniclastic units composed of mudstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. The islands are composed of a variety of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The area is an active subduction zone, and lies along the interface of the Caribbean and South American Tectonic plates. Kick ’em Jenny is an undersea volcano north of Grenada, and there is also another less active volcano named Kick ’em Jack in the area. The shallow bank of the Grenadines extends from St Vincent to Grenada, and has a natural boundaries of the Tobago Trough to the east and the Grenada Trough to the west, where the depth increases rapidly. The shallow bank creates ideal conditions for the formation of productive seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs.</p><br>
<h2>Coral reefs and seagrass beds</h2><br>
<p>Surrounding the Tobago Cays are several shallow fringing reefs around the islands, and a major bank-barrier reef known as Horseshoe Reef. Other major reefs in the park include World’s End Reef, Egg Reef and Mayreau Gardens. The fringing reefs around Mayreau and the Mayreau Gardens reef are considered to be the most biodiverse and healthy, with Horseshoe Reef and the reef around Petit Tabac being the next richest. Finally, the World’s End and Egg reef, as well as the other fringing reefs are considered to be the most degraded and least diverse in the park. The common corals on the reefs are Montastrea, Porites, Acropora, Millepora and Siderastrea species, as well as patches of soft corals such as Gorgonians (Sea Fans) and sponges. Large fish, such as barracuda and jacks, are occasionally found in the park, although most of the fish species are small. Algae and disease are prominent across all reefs and affect coral health. Surveys in 2007 concluded that most reefs were dominated by dead coral rubble and had live coral cover between 5% and 30%, and all reefs are considered to be in decline.</p><br>
<p>Most sea grass beds lie within the shallow ‘lagoon’ south of Baradal in the centre of the cays, although there are tiny patches of sea grass near the Horseshoe back reef. The main species of seagrass are Thallassia and Syringodium, with small colonies of loggerhead sponges (Spheciospongia verparium), various soft corals and small colonies of Porites and Siderastrea. The sea grass beds support several species of juvenile fish, green turtles (Chelonia mydas), starfish (Oreaster reticulates), conchs (Strombus gigas) and sea eggs (Tripneustes ventricosus), however there are also significant areas of algae.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The terrestrial flora consists mainly of dry forest, grasses and shrubs, including species such as coconut, agave, cactus, coccoloba sp. and diospyros sp. There is one patch of Red Mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) on Petit Rameau– this species is rare within the country (although listed as least concern under the IUCN Red List). There are some Melocactus Broadwayi on the cays, which are listed as near threatened under the IUCN Red List. Underwater, there are areas of seagrass beds which contain two threatened species - Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) and Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum).</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Marine Park contains a number of important threatened species, both terrestrial and marine. There are populations of Brown Pelican, Bridled Terns and Iguanas in the park, and there are many migratory birds which pass through the area. The beaches and sea grass beds are feeding and nesting grounds for Green Turtles, Hawksbill Turtles and Leatherback Turtles. The reefs are home to many species of listed coral from the Milleporidae, Alcyonacea and Scleractinia families, there are also populations of Queen Conch and Caribbean Spiny lobster in the park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands of Mayreau and the Tobago Cays were under private ownership from at least the 16th Century up until 12 April 1999, when the Cays were purchased after long negotiations by the state of St.Vincent & the Grenadines. The purchases were restricted to the five islands of the Cays, while the larger island of Mayreau remained in private hands.</p><br>
<p>In 1985, the Government of St.Vincent and the Grenadines (GOSVG) requested assistance from the Organization of American States (OAS) for developing tourism within the Grenadines. This led to a detailed proposal for the formation of a Tobago Cays National Park with initial investment costs estimated at $US 1 million (Heyman 1988).</p><br>
<p>In 1987, the Fisheries Division established the Tobago Cays as a conservation area, along with nine other such areas, in which spear fishing was prohibited. The rectangular boundary of this area included the whole of Mayreau, the Cays and most of the coral reefs, but was slightly smaller than the area now designated as a marine park. It has also been pointed out (ECLAC, 2002; IJA, 2004a) that the 1986 Fisheries Act only provided for the designation of marine reserves, not conservation areas.</p><br>
<h3>Tobago Cays Marine Park</h3><br>
<p>In September 1993 (as described by Espeut, 2006), the governments of France and St. Vincent and the Grenadines signed and launched the Tobago Cays Marine Park Project and produced an updated Action Plan (FMC, 1995).</p><br>
<p>In 1995 while the Tobago Cays were still under private ownership, Cabinet then approved a proposal to establish the Tobago Cays Marine Park (TCMP) including the island of Mayreau. On 25 November 1997, the Government enacted the Marine Parks Act and thereby created a Marine Parks Board that was to oversee the management and conservation of the TCMP, and any other marine parks to be designated in future.</p><br>
<p>The Tobago Cays were then declared a marine park in December 1997 by order published in the Official Gazette No. 40 of that year. Cabinet appointed the first Marine Parks Board in May 1998. On 8 July 1998, the Government gazetted the Marine Parks (Tobago Cays) Regulations, and in August 1998 a draft copy of the Tobago Cays management plan was submitted to the Marine Parks Board (Cordice, 1998). At this point, a series of problems began to appear. The regulations enacted for the park were not implemented, nor was the proposed fee structure, and the first draft management plan was never officially endorsed or adopted.</p><br>
<p>A set of revisions to the management plan was prepared in July 2000 (Cordice, 2000), but this also was never formally approved. Part of the problem was the uncertainty in the legal status and boundaries of the park. It has since been observed that the 1997 designation as a ‘marine park’ only included the actual islands of the park, and none of the surrounding sea area (Espeut, 2006).</p><br>
<p>In November 2001, a study by Caribbean marine park manager, Tom van’t Hof (ECLAC, 2002), described the slow progress with implementation up to this time and outlined some of the problems. With legal discrepancies in the appointment of its members, the board ceased to operate in 2001, and French financial assistance to the park was discontinued at the end of that year. Since this time, various studies have been conducted, and alternative plans put forward for management of the park.</p><br>
<h3>Private management controversy</h3><br>
<p>In May 2003, it was announced that the Government was considering a proposal for the day-to-day management of the Tobago Cays to be contracted to the nearby but foreign-owned Palm Island Resort. While the proposal clearly provided some attractions for government, not least a guaranteed income from the park, there were also concerns over the proposer’s apparent prioritization of profitability over biodiversity conservation. The plan would have seen several structures erected on the islands and the concept of handing a prized national asset to a private company caused a public outcry.</p><br>
<p>In September 2003, a local NGO – the Mayreau Environmental Development Organization (MEDO) – then submitted a counter-proposal to the Marine Parks Board. The Palm Island proposal was eventually withdrawn by the resort company, and in the end, neither proposal was accepted by government. In the meantime, additions were being suggested to the ‘management plan’ for the park, but still little was happening on the ground. Subventions provided by government paid the salaries of some park staff, but were usually insufficient to keep the boats running and maintain a regular presence in the park.</p><br>
<p>The June 2, 2003 plan by Palm Island Resort Limited (PIRL) for the management of the Tobago Cays clearly offended the public, including those in the southern Grenadines. On September 9 the Mayreau Environmental Developmental Organization (MEDO) made a counter proposal in response to the PIRL Proposal and this was soon followed by the formation of the Friends of the Tobago Cays - a not for profit, non-partisan group - in support of the MEDO’s Proposal. The government swiftly and adamantly rejected the MEDO Management Proposal and alternatives to the PIRL’s proposal and information regarding funding activities, namely, the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) OPAAL Project funded by the World Bank, were discarded and referred to as “rubbish” by local authorities.</p><br>
<p>The PIRL proposal had in fact violated parts of an earlier agreement to return the Tobago Cays from private investor ownership to the government of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a deal made under the auspices of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (U.I.G.A.). Part of this agreement was that no commercial activity would be permitted in the Tobago Cays. The June 10–11, 1998 round of negotiations in Barbados formed the basis for Prime Minister Mitchell’s public statement on this matter a year later. “…I wish to warn that my government fully understands that should we ever entertain or engage or permit commercial activity in Tobago Cays we are creating opportunity for the original owners to re-open their claim for US $6.5 million plus interest accruing from today…”(James Mitchell, April 12, 1999).</p><br>
<p>Local stakeholders clearly viewed Palm Island’s control of the Tobago Cays not to be in the interests of the local communities. The PIRL management proposal held no real benefits to local stakeholders, including those in the diving, yachting and day excursion industries. Concern over PIRL proposals cemented the formation of the Alliance of Union Island Environmental Organizations, which in turn approached other Vincentians for assistance. “The Friends of the Tobago Cays” (FOTC) had as its core element some members of the defunct National Trust of St.Vincent and the Grenadines and emerged as the organization that would bring the issues to the public’s attention. The FOTC took up the challenge and embarked on an education program aimed at demonstrating the folly in handing over the management of the Cays to a foreign private operator. The FOTC was animated in its quest to ensure that the Tobago Cays, a most valuable piece of our national heritage, was not handed over to a “foreign for-profit management” but that the Cays be maintained and managed in a sustainable way for the benefit of all Vincentians and users of the park.</p><br>
<p>After critiquing the management plans of the PIRL, the FOTC expressed concerns in respect of (a) maintaining the integrity of our cultural and natural heritage; (b) financial arrangements; (c) the legal implications of commercial activity in the Tobago Cays; and (d) the handing over of regulatory functions of government to a private entity. The FOTC felt that the government was not being honest and transparent in its dealings with the local people. Government on the other hand took the view that the intervention of FOTC and others was undesirable to the government’s agenda and this attitude was encapsulated in a comment made to an FOTC representative by Senator Julian Francis, Minister of Communication and Works at a Chamber of Commerce Meeting that “lay people should stay out of certain issues”. In a four-hour meeting between Prime Minister Ralph Gonsalves and the FOTC late 2003 the Prime Minister stated categorically “there was absolutely nothing that Friends of the Tobago Cays would be able to contribute that would sway his decision.”</p><br>
<p>The FOTC’s proceeded to conduct meetings with various stakeholders, including those in the Grenadines, the Government, Service Clubs and the Chamber of Industry and Commerce. Information was disseminated to the public through press releases, newspaper articles and radio programmes. A public petition which attracted thousands of signatures was sent to the Prime Minister. Following this, the FOTC hosted two major environmental conferences that were held on Union Island on April 24 and Kingstown April 26, 2004. Those sessions hosted facilitators from the Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES), University of the West Indies - Cave Hill, the Florida Cays Natural Marine Sanctuary, MEDO, the Soufriere Marine Management Area in St. Lucia, Coral Resource Management, Bonaire and other regional consultants.</p><br>
<p>By late 2004 PIRL announced the withdrawal of its proposal to manage the Tobago Cays Marine Park, after a failed final attempt at a new management policy via a “Strategic Alliance Agreement between the government of St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Palm Island Resort Limited”. This withdrawal notice was greeted with much satisfaction by many Vincentians but equally resented by the government. The government chided the critics of PIRL Management Proposal as “a small minority of Vincentians” who were at the same time accused of being “…dishonest, vindictive, untruthful and malignant…” But the reversal of the PIRL’s Tobago Cays Management Proposal and the government’s plan to hand over management to PIRL must be seen as the direct result of the collective efforts of Vincentians throughout the multi-island state who supported appropriate management structures to be put in place for the Tobago Cays Marine Park.</p><br>
<p>The challenge to the government and PIRL initially came from the people of the Southern Grenadines who brought the matter to the attention of mainland Vincentians. It was also the support of many stakeholders in the business sector and the tremendous effort put out by the Friends of the Tobago Cays in highlighting the negative social and environmental problems that would have resulted if the management of the Tobago Cays was handed over to Palm Island Resorts.</p><br>
<h3>Relaunch of the Marine Park</h3><br>
<p>At the present time, the Marine Parks Board (that was created to oversee the management and conservation of all marine parks in SVG), functions as the Board of Management for the TCMP, overseeing its day-to-day operations. The current arrangement lacks local involvement in decision making and gives too much responsibility to the board for operational matters rather than policy issues and national coordination. With four other marine parks proposed in the 2004 Protected Areas Systems Plan (IJA, 2004a), there is an urgent need to put the management of the TCMP and any future marine parks on firmer ground. Progress towards this was made in 2005 with the preparation of a fully revised draft Marine Parks Bill, but further challenges remain.</p><br>
<p>Towards these aims, the TCMP was ‘re-launched’ by government on 2 December 2006 at a ceremony in Union Island, coinciding with the start of the main 2006-07 tourist season. From this time, the park administration has implemented a new user fee policy, as approved by cabinet on 1 November 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Issues and threats</h2><br>
<p>Despite being described in various sources as one of the largest remaining pristine coral reef groups in the Windward Island, there is growing evidence that this ecosystem is being affected by non-sustainable use and natural environmental impacts. Significant sources of "natural" threats to corals are storm damage and white band disease and bleaching.</p><br>
<p>Key human induced impacts include: (i) overfishing attributed to both local fisher folks and visiting yachts (particularly in the use of spear guns); (ii) physical impacts associated with visiting yachts (anchor damage and running aground); (iii) snorkeling and diving; and (iv) bilge and wastewater discharge from yachts. Visitation is difficult to control due to number of boats (many of which are under an international flag) exacerbated by the absence of regular coast guard patrols.</p><br>
<p>Major stakeholder groups include "boat boys" (locals who service the visiting yachts); diver and hotel operators; and the fishers. There appears to be a growing perception among many of the locals that despite the increasing number of tourists and the presence of a world-class resource, they are not benefiting from the development area.</p><br>
<h2>Current management</h2><br>
<p>The TCMP is governed by a Marine Parks Board, which contains ten members, including a chairperson and vice-chairperson. The ten members are two NGO representative, on nominee of the SVG National Trust, one nominee of the Hotel and Tourism Association, one nominee of the Minister of Tourism, one nominee of the Minister for Parks, the Chief Fisheries Officer, the Director of Finance (or nominee), the Solicitor General (or nominee) and the Commander of the Coast Guard (or nominee).</p><br>
<p>There are 13 staff working at the Marine Park Authority in Union Island. The authority is self-financed (from fees), it does not rely on government subventions. The Park Manager runs the operations of the TCMP, with a number of rangers, wardens, office attendants and administrative assistants. There is a total of 13 staff. The Tobago Cays Marine Park offices are located at Clifton harbour, Union Island.</p><br>
<p>Coral reefs are protected by a series of regulations which specify areas to anchor and windsurf, and prohibit fishing within most of the park. There are also measures to reduce the likelihood of coral damage from boats including speed restrictions and buoys setting out sailing areas. Regulations prevent waste dumping. Diving is limited to registered local dive shops. The flora or fauna is not allowed to be touched, and the substrate is not to be disturbed.</p><br>
<p>Sea grass beds are protected by a series of regulations which specify areas to anchor, and prohibit fishing within most of the park. There is a specific sea grass conservation area which is off limits to boats, although swimming and snorkelling is allowed.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is the main activity within Marine Park. Around 8000 yachts visit the cays each year, which includes many charter yachts, and day trips. Snorkelling and scuba diving is a popular activity within the park, there are four local dive shops in the surrounding islands – the most popular sites for scuba diving are Mayreau Gardens, Horseshoe Reef and World’s End Reef. Cruise ships visit the park mainly in the high season from November to April. Visitors also use water taxis to visit the cays for a day trip, there are around 40 taxis in Union and 5-10 in Mayreau. There are a number of vendors in the park, selling T-shirts, handicrafts, ice, bread, fresh fish, fruits and vegetables to the visiting yachts. Vendors are restricted to the north beach of Petit Bateau. Wind surfing also occurs in the park. Hotels and restaurants in the surrounding islands are dependent on the park for drawing tourists to the area.</p><br>
<p>The Oppian Hill  is the southern spur of the Esquiline Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome, Italy. It is separated from the Cispius on the north by the valley of the Suburra, and from the Caelian Hill on the south by the valley of the Colosseum. The Oppius and the Cispius together form the Esquiline plateau just inside the line of the Servian Wall.</p><br>
<p>In the divisions of the Septimontium (seven hills) Fagutal appears as an independent locality, from which we can infer that originally "Oppius" was strictly applied to this spur except the western end. The northern tip of this western end was also called Carinae, which extended between the Velian Hill and the Clivus Pullius, looked out to the southwest (across the swamps of the Palus Ceroliae towards the Aventine), incorporated the Fagutal and was one of ancient Rome&#39;s most exclusive neighborhoods.</p><br>
<p>At least for religious purposes the name Oppius continued in use to the end of the republic; no later instance has been found. According to Varro its name derives from Oppius, a citizen of Tusculum who came to the Romans assistance during Tullus Hostiliuss siege of Veii. However, the words true etymology is obscure. It may possibly be that of a clan that lived in this area, a gens name of plebeian status. Detlefsens conjecture that Oppius is derived from Oppidus was revived by Pinza, who regards the name as comparatively late.</p><br>
<p>The Oppian Hill Park (Parco del Colle Oppio) covers about eleven hectares. It was developed in 1871, as part of the urban reorganization that followed the establishment of Rome as the capital of Italy. From that time the area was used as a public garden. But it was during the fascist era when work was carried out to give the park its present appearance. This was planned in 1928 under the guidance of the architect Raffaele De Vico, and completed in 1936. Work included the fountains, statues and marble sculptures that decorate the park today. A central avenue leads down the hill to the Colosseum, providing an attractive view.</p><br>
<p>The Oppian Hill Park is considered to be an archaeological park. Much of the Domus Aurea (Golden House of Nero) lies under it, and it also contains the ruins of the Baths of Trajan and the earlier Baths of Titus.</p><br>
<p>The Toce is a river in Piedmont, Italy, which stretches the length of the Val d&#39;Ossola from the Swiss border to Lake Maggiore into which it debouches near Fondotoce in the commune of Verbania. The river is 83.6 km long and is formed in the upper Val Formazza by the confluence of a number of torrents in the plain of Riale.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The source of one of these, the Gries, is situated on the Italian southern side of the Gries Pass; another forms beneath the Passo di San Giacomo, others flow from little Alpine lakes such as Lago Castel and Lago di Sabbione.</p><br>
<p>South of La Frua the water of the river plummets 143 m over the Cascata del Toce into the Formazza Valley, through which it flows before transversing Valle Antigorio after another series of cascades. Near Crevola dOssola the river Diveria flows into the Toce. At this point, the valley gets wider and is known as Val dOssola. The Toce flows next to the capital of the valley, Domodossola, and then Villadossola and Ornavasso. After a total of 76 km the Toce then flows into Lake Maggiore.</p><br>
<p>The major tributaries are the Diveria, Bogna, Melezzo Occidentale (joining it near Domodossola), Ovesca, Anza (near Piedimulera), and the Strona (near Gravellona Toce).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In ancient times the Toce river was called Athisone or Atisone, from which the current name is derived. An old alternative spelling is also La Toccia (with feminine gender).</p><br>
<p>The Louisiana History Museum is located in the historic downtown portion of Alexandria, Louisiana, USA, near the Red River. It showcases the social evolution of all of Louisiana, but centers on the history of Central Louisiana, Rapides Parish, and Alexandria. Major exhibit areas deal with Native Americans, Louisiana geography, politics, health care, farming, and the impact of war.</p><br>
<h2>The old Alexandria Library building</h2><br>
<p>The building housing the Museum and Alexandria Genealogical Library started life as the Alexandria Public Library in 1907. The building was constructed solely for the advancement of culture and learning in by Caldwell Brothers (contractors), and Crosby & Henkel of New Orleans (architects). It replaced an earlier library that was burned by General Nathaniel Banks&#39; federal troops on May 13, 1864. Remodeled in 1970, restored as a Bicentennial project in 1976, and again in 2003, it now houses (upstairs) one of the largest genealogical libraries in Louisiana. The structure was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.</p><br>
<h2>Museum history</h2><br>
<p>The Louisiana History Museum was begun in 1971 by Angelique Stafford "Gic" Kraushaar. Her vision was to establish a museum in Alexandria that would not only describe the history of Louisiana but also show the unique beginnings and background of Central Louisiana.</p><br>
<h2>Displays and exhibits</h2><br>
<p>There are more than fifty displays and exhibits, including:</p><br>
<p>Native Americans in Louisiana</p><br>
<p>How the Alexandria town plat was laid out in 1805 by Alexander Fulton</p><br>
<p>Louisiana under the rule of Spain, France and England</p><br>
<p>Famous figures in Louisiana such as Governor Murphy J. Foster, Jr.</p><br>
<p>The American Revolution</p><br>
<p>Civil War</p><br>
<p>Construction of the Civil War dam on the Red River by General Joseph Bailey</p><br>
<p>Camp Beauregard, a United States Army facility in World War I</p><br>
<p>The Louisiana Maneuvers and Camp Claiborne in Alexandria in World War II</p><br>
<p>Politicians from the Central Louisiana area including Huey Long and Earl Kemp Long</p><br>
<p>Central Louisiana in postcards</p><br>
<p>The Tarso Voon is a 3,100 m high stratovolcano in the north of the Republic of Chad. It is located in the western center of the Tibesti Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The summit of the mountain is dominated by the 14 x 18 km relatively flat caldera. Extensive basaltic flows lie on the northeastern side in a 180-degree arc and are a result of the high activity in the Quaternary. In the neighborhood in northwestern direction is the Ehi Mosgau, a stratovolcano with the same elevation, 3100 m above sea level. Deposits from pyroclastic clouds are found in 15 to 35 km around the caldera. The mountain was constructed over a basement of Precambrian schists.</p><br>
<p>The well known Soborom Solfataric field is the largest in the Tibesti Mountains, it is located about 5 km west of the summit rim. The active fumaroles, mudpots and hot springs are visited by the people of the Tibesti for medical purposes.</p><br>
<p>Blue Cypress Lake, originally called Lake Wilmington, is a lake in Indian River County of the Treasure Coast in Florida. It is the largest lake in the Treasure Coast and Indian River County. It is home to the origin of the St. Johns River. It is believed that the source is on the northeastern portion of the lake. The lake is over 6,500 acres  in size, in circumference, and has an average depth of 8 feet . The lake is 2,100 acres  larger than Lake Washington, 27 mi  north of this lake. The lakes name comes from the blue appearance of the cypress trees as the morning suns rays reflect off the water. A fishing camp called Middletons Fishing Camp is 4 mi  off State Road 60.</p><br>
<h2>Middletons Fishing Camp</h2><br>
<p>Middletons Fish Camp is the only fish camp on Blue Cypress Lake. The camp offers free primitive (tent) camping, kayak and boat rentals, bait shop, ice, drinks and snack food. A boat ramp, dock, picnic area and restrooms are adjacent at the Lakefront Park. Lakeside cabins and manufactured homes for rental lodging are managed by Middletons Blue Cypress Rentals. The camp and the rentals are located at the westernmost point of the lake. This fish camp is located in a hamlet named Blue Cypress Village, which has only 3 streets, 73rd Place, 73rd Lane, and 73rd Manor. It is from Fellsmere by road.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Blue Cypress Lake is located at {{coord|27|45|15|N|80|44|37|W|type:city}}. It is the headwaters of the St. Johns River. The lake is over 6,500 acres (26 km²) in size. It is directly west of Fellsmere, 11 mi away. To the north is Palm Bay, to the west is Yeehaw Junction, and to the east is Fellsmere.</p><br>
<p>Great Carrs is a fell in the English Lake District. It stands above Wrynose Pass in the southern part of the District.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Coniston (or Furness) Fells form the watershed between Coniston Water and the Duddon valley to the west. The range begins at Wrynose Pass and runs south for around 10 miles before petering out at Broughton in Furness on the Duddon Estuary. Alfred Wainwright in his influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells took only the northern half of the range as Lakeland proper, consigning the lower fells to the south to a supplementary work The Outlying Fells of Lakeland. Great Carrs being the most northerly of the Coniston Fells therefore qualifies as one of the 214 Wainwrights. Later guidebook writers have chosen to include the whole range in their main volumes.</p><br>
<p>Swirl How stands at the geographical centre of the Coniston Fells and, according to some sources, may be the highest of the group. A long sickle shaped ridge extends from the summit of Swirl How, first north and then curving around to the east. Great Carrs is the high point of this ridge, which continues as Wet Side Edge, falling to the floor of Little Langdale. A western outlier branching off the main ridge between Great Carrs and Swirl How is Grey Friar.</p><br>
<p>Great Carrs, in common with many fells, has easy slopes to the west and crags to the east. These crags- falling directly from the summit- form the head of Greenburn. A steep sided, rather marshy valley, Greenburn is a part of the Little Langdale system, its waters joining the River Brathay at Little Langdale Tarn. Greenburn itself bears a tarn, or more correctly the remains of a reservoir. A natural waterbody was dammed in the early 18th century to provide water for the Greenburn Mine. The 250 yard long barrage has now been breached to leave a collection of pools and bogs. The mines in question, also known as New Coniston Mine, were worked for copper from 1845 until substantially abandoned in 1865, the shafts reaching a depth of 700 ft below ground. Greenburn is bounded to the north by the curve of Wet Side Edge and to the south by Wetherlam.</p><br>
<p>Wet Side Edge has a number of intermediate tops including Little Carrs (2,270 ft), Hell Gill Pike (2,172 ft) and Rough Crags (1,600 ft). To the north of the ridge is Wrynose Pass, the only connection for vehicles between Langdale and the Duddon Valley, and the route of a Roman road. Across the pass are Cold Pike and Pike of Blisco, and behind them the ground rises toward the Scafells. The top of the pass at (1,290 ft), although facilitating access from east to west, does not sit on any obvious ridge descending from Great Carrs.</p><br>
<p>To the west of Great Carrs long slopes fall to the head of the Duddon valley as the river begins its long journey from Wrynose to the Duddon Sands. There are isolated features such as Mart Crag and the deep gully of Hell Gill, but these flanks are generally unfrequented.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Wet Side Edge Member (andesitic lapilli-tuff) and Long Top Member (rhyolitic tuff) recur in faulted bands across the fell.</p><br>
<h2>Air crash</h2><br>
<p>The ridge southward to Swirl How is named Top of Broad Slack, Broad Slack being a ferociously steep grass slope climbing out of Greenburn between the crags. This is the site of a wartime aircrash and bears the sad remains of a Royal Canadian Air Force Handley Page Halifax bomber. The undercarriage, together with a wooden cross and memorial cairn is on the top of the ridge with the rest of the wreckage spread down Broad Slack. During a night time navigation exercise in 1944, the RCAF Halifax from RAF Topcliffe became lost in thick cloud while over the north west of England. In an attempt to wait out the blanket of grey, they circled in hope the cloud would clear, ultimately becoming hopelessly lost. To try to get a visual fix for the navigator, the pilot dropped the bomber out of the cloud base, with no knowledge of what was below him. Unfortunately, for both him, the crew and the aircraft, they were greeted by the great rising fells of Swirl How and Great Carrs. With no time to react, the aircraft hit the mountainside killing all on board. Despite the crew perishing in the impact, the bomber remained largely intact and, to prevent other aircraft from spotting it and reporting it repeatedly, the wreckage was cut into a number of smaller, moveable pieces and discarded down Broad Slack, where parts of it are still visible today. Over the years, two of the four Rolls-Royce engines were recovered from the crash site by an RAF helicopter, one of which is now on display at the Ruskin Museum in Coniston. In contrast to the craggy scarp of the east face, the western slope of the ridge descends over grass to the col of Fairfield, forming a tilted triangular plateau. Across Fairfield is the rocky top of Grey Friar.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of Great Carrs is marked by a small cairn on grass, perched above the rocky abyss of the head of Greenburn. The view to the north takes in serried ranks of fells while in other directions the Isle of Man and Pennines can be seen.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Climbs from Little Langdale via Wet Side Edge provide the most popular direct route up Great Carrs. The Edge can also be gained near the top from the summit of Wrynose Pass. Pathless ascents via Hell Gill or Broad Slack are also possible, but many other walkers will arrive on Great Carrs from Swirl How or Grey Friar.</p><br>
<p>The Historic Elitch Theatre is located at the original Elitch Gardens site in northwest Denver, Colorado. Opened in 1890, it was centerpiece of the park that was the first zoo west of Chicago. The theatre was Denvers first professional theatre, serving as home to Americas first and oldest summer-stock theatre company from 1893 until the 1960s. The first films in the western US were shown there in 1896. Cecil B. DeMille sent yearly telegrams wishing the theatre another successful season, calling it "one of the cradles of American drama."</p><br>
<p>The theatre closed in 1991 and exterior restoration on the historic auditorium was completed in 2007.</p><br>
<p>Fundraising continues for interior renovations before opening to the public. The vision is to reopen as a year-round multimedia performing arts complex for the community offering education, film, live music, and theatre.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>John Elitch and Mary Elitch Long first opened Elitch Gardens on May 1, 1890, with animals, bands, flowers and an open-air theatre where Mayor Londoner of Denver spoke. Inspired by Shakespeare&#39;s Globe Theatre, the first shows were vaudeville acts by accomplished local and national performers. In 1891 the theatre was enclosed and rebuilt for $100,000. The Boston Opera Company performed musicals, and light opera starting with The Pirates of Penzance. In 1893 the first summer stock theatre company, the Norcross Company, was organized in the East and brought to the gardens. Vaudeville shows continued until 1900.</p><br>
<p>In 1896, Edison&#39;s Vitascope was exhibited at the theatre showing the first films in Colorado.</p><br>
<p>The Elitch Gardens Stock Theatre Company began performing in 1897 under the management of Mary Elitch Long. Its first season in 1897 opened with leading man James O&#39;Neill, who had promised John that he would act in the new theatre when it was ready. The first show performed there was Helene. The company became known for putting on ten plays in a ten-week summer season and attracting internationally known stars of the theatre and screen.</p><br>
<p>Sarah Bernhardt came to Denver in 1906 after the San Francisco earthquake destroyed the California Theatre where she was scheduled to perform. At Elitch&#39;s she played Camille at the matinée and LaSorcier at night. Douglas Fairbanks was hired into the same company. Prior in 1905, he was hired to sweep the stage for theatre tickets.</p><br>
<p>Operating the park became too costly for Mary Elitch. With the purchase of Elitch Gardens by John Mulvihill in 1916, she relinquished control of the Gardens and theatre. (two theatre boxes were always reserved for her and her friends). Mulvihill oversaw the theatre until his death in 1930 and was succeeded by his son-in-law Arnold Gurtler.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, the Elitch Theatre was used to film scenes for The Glenn Miller Story.</p><br>
<p>The Elitch Garden Theatre Company became its own incorporated business, separate from the Elitch Gardens Park, renting the theatre in 1963. The company stopped operating as a traditional resident summer-stock, switching to single, star-packaged shows from New York. The company had many successful years, but as time and culture changed the theatre building was neglected.</p><br>
<p>The park&#39;s Trocadero Ballroom was razed in 1975. Fearing a similar fate, the community added the theatre to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>The Elitch Theatre Companys last season was in 1987. The park booked the "Incredible Acrobats of China" for a season, then one night musical acts before it was officially closed in 1991. The Robber Bridegroom was performed with Patrick Cassidy for the theatres centennial anniversary. Actor Raymond Burr raised $2 million for an educational program at the theatre. The money was instead donated to local Cole Middle School.</p><br>
<p>The Elitch Gardens amusement park moved to the current central Platte Valley location in 1994. The new $94 million park was opened in 1995 with attendance reaching one million. Two fires in 1995 on the old Gardens property near the theatre cause public outcry for additional security. The original Elitch property was sold to Perry Rose LLC in 1996 with the conditions that the theatre and carousel shell never be demolished.</p><br>
<p>A nonprofit organization, the Historic Elitch Gardens Theatre Foundation, was formed in 2002 to raise funds, maintain, preserve and restore the Elitch Gardens Theatre and carousel pavilion. In 2006, groundbreaking for the renovation of the theatre began with restoring the building&#39;s exterior, including a cement foundation for the building.</p><br>
<p>As of 2010, the exterior restoration of the building is complete but the interior remains unrestored.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Barbara Medill, a friend of Mary Elitch Long, donated some of Long&#39;s possessions to the Foundation, including an engraved silver table setting. After a massive volunteer cleanup, the interior was opened for Doors Open Denver in April 2012. Musicians and Shakespearean performers were the first acts on stage in the 22 years since the building closed.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>In 2006, the Historic Elitch Gardens Theatre Foundation received $5 million in federal, state, city, grants and private donations. Work began on saving and restoring the historic exterior. A concrete foundation was poured under the exterior walls, replacing beams supported by stones resting upon bare ground. The roof, gable, main entrance/lobby, and exterior walls were replaced and painted.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the hand-painted decorative historic "Anne Hathaway" curtain, (oil on canvas: circa early 1900&#39;s), was removed and stored, after water damage and tears in the fabric were found: (the curtain was rolled and stored in a backstage room at the theatre.)</p><br>
<p>There was also extensive erosion to areas of the theatre owing to neglect and disuse. Vermin in the theatre were evicted in 2011, and volunteers removed their excrement.</p><br>
<p>2012: Roof repaired in the fly building due to leaks above the stage. The repairs were not suitable, and the roof still has some leaks. Toddler swimming pools have replaced buckets in the back stage area.</p><br>
<p>2013/2014: A fire suppression sprinkler system was installed, and restoration work for code compliance and safety issues was instituted.</p><br>
<p>2016: "Curtains Without Borders" (a non-profit organization promulgating proper storage etiquette of antiquated theatre curtains and drapes.) Representatives from the group gave a lecture at the Elitch Theatre about theatre grand drapes and curtains. They were asked to review the Elitch Theatre&#39;s "Anne Hathaway" grand drape and consult on its restoration. The drape was removed from storage, and unrolled by CWB representatives and theatre volunteers who discovered improper storage. The drape was illegible, and the paint dissolved into dust as the curtain was unrolled. The curtain was displayed on the backstage theatre floor for lecture attendees to view. Those who regarding it as a piece of Colorado history were devastated that it had been destroyed by time and neglect.</p><br>
<p>Interior historic restoration work is still needed. Currently without plumbing or air conditioning, the building needs modernization while preserving the original woodwork and design. Fundraising continues by the Historic Elitch Theatre Foundation to reach those goals.</p><br>
<h2>Stars Who Appeared at The Elitch Theatre</h2><br>
<p>Steve Allen, 1974</p><br>
<p>Morey Amsterdam, 1968</p><br>
<p>Eve Arden, 1965</p><br>
<p>Cliff Arquette, 1966</p><br>
<p>George Arliss, 1905–06, &#39;13</p><br>
<p>John Astin, 1973–74</p><br>
<p>Sarah Bernhardt, 1906</p><br>
<p>Beulah Bondi, 1925–26</p><br>
<p>Shirley Booth, 1968</p><br>
<p>Helen Bonfils, 1934–59</p><br>
<p>Raymond Burr, 1944</p><br>
<p>Sid Caesar, 1971, &#39;74</p><br>
<p>Kitty Carlisle, 1965, &#39;70</p><br>
<p>Cecil B. DeMille, 1905</p><br>
<p>Brandon deWilde, 1972, died in motor vehicle accident before leaving town.</p><br>
<p>Patty Duke, 1973–74</p><br>
<p>Douglas Fairbanks, 1905</p><br>
<p>Douglas Fairbanks Jr., 1971–73</p><br>
<p>Maude Fealy, 1896, 1903, 1904, 1907, 1909, 1917</p><br>
<p>Jose Ferrer, 1973</p><br>
<p>Minnie Maddern Fiske 1905, 1907–08</p><br>
<p>Arlene Francis, 1964–65, &#39;69</p><br>
<p>Mitzi Gaynor, 1987</p><br>
<p>Barbara Bel Geddes, 1964</p><br>
<p>George Gobel, 1971</p><br>
<p>Karen Grassle, 1972</p><br>
<p>Julie Harris, 1978</p><br>
<p>Mimi Hines, 1965, 1968, 1970</p><br>
<p>Kim Hunter, 1975</p><br>
<p>Gabe Kaplan, 1982–83</p><br>
<p>Grace Kelly, 1951</p><br>
<p>Cloris Leachman, 1982–83</p><br>
<p>Harold Lloyd, 1914</p><br>
<p>Myrna Loy, 1969</p><br>
<p>Fredric March, 1926–28</p><br>
<p>Enid Markey, 1942</p><br>
<p>Jayne Meadows, 1974</p><br>
<p>Patricia Neal, 1947</p><br>
<p>Maureen OSullivan, 1972, 82-83</p><br>
<p>Walter Pidgeon, 1964</p><br>
<p>Antoinette Perry, 1904–05</p><br>
<p>Howard Platt, 1968, 1984</p><br>
<p>Jane Powell, 1981</p><br>
<p>Tyrone Power, 1905</p><br>
<p>Vincent Price, 1979</p><br>
<p>Rosemary Prinz, 1968, 1977</p><br>
<p>John Raitt, 1977, &#39;79</p><br>
<p>Robert Redford, 1955</p><br>
<p>Lynn Redgrave, 1975</p><br>
<p>Debbie Reynolds 1986</p><br>
<p>Edward G. Robinson, 1922</p><br>
<p>Ginger Rogers, 1975</p><br>
<p>Cesar Romero, 1964</p><br>
<p>Mickey Rooney, 1972–74</p><br>
<p>William Shatner, 1975, 1980</p><br>
<p>Haila Stoddard, 1953, 1975, 1983</p><br>
<p>Gloria Swanson, 1967</p><br>
<p>Constance Towers, 1969</p><br>
<p>Ernest Truex, 1903, 1904, 1906</p><br>
<p>Lana Turner, 1977</p><br>
<p>Joan Van Ark, 1960</p><br>
<p>Dick Van Patten, 1968</p><br>
<p>Helen Ware, 1912</p><br>
<p>Nancy Walker, 1987</p><br>
<p>Blanche Walsh, 1901</p><br>
<p>David Warfield, 1908</p><br>
<p>Paxton Whitehead, 1979</p><br>
<p>Shelley Winters, 1973, &#39;83</p><br>
<p>Donald Woods (actor), 1933-32, 1939, 1941, 1947–48</p><br>
<p>Jane Wyatt, 1939</p><br>
<p>Stephen Stills, 1991</p><br>
<p>Late Island is an uninhabited volcanic island southwest of Vavaʻu in the kingdom of Tonga.</p><br>
<p>The small, 6-km-wide circular island of Late, lying along the Tofua volcanic arc about 55 km WSW of the island of Vavau, contains a 400-m-wide, 150-m-deep summit crater with an ephemeral lake. The largely submerged basaltic andesite to andesitic volcano rises 1500 m from the sea floor, with its conical summit reaching 540 m above sea level. Cinder cones are found north of the summit crater, west and north of a semicircular plateau 100–150 m below the summit, and on the NW coast. A graben-like structure on the NE flank contains two large pit craters, the lower of which is partially filled by a saltwater lake. Only two eruptions have occurred in historical time, both from NE-flank craters, which produced explosive activity and possible lava flows in 1790 and 1854.</p><br>
<p>It was discovered by Spanish naval officer Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa on 27 February 1781, on board of the frigate Princesa. Six years later it was explored by French explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse. It was again visited by British naval officer Edward Edwards in 1791 that named it Bickerston.</p><br>
<p>The Layou River is a river in Dominica. It rises in the interior of the country, flowing westward to reach the Caribbean Sea on the country&#39;s central western coast, very close to the town of St. Joseph. It is the longest and deepest river in Dominica.</p><br>
<h2>Disaster</h2><br>
<p>The river is prone to flooding. Matthieu Dam which is located near the end of the river has collapsed multiple times.It all started in the year 1997 when landslides, due to heavy rainfall blocked portions of the river. In the year 2011, the river flooded twice. It flooded in July 2011 and more recently in October 2011. This poses a major threat to the http://layou.communitytourism.dm/about/history/ Layou village. No lives were lost, but it affected 13 dwellings.</p><br>
<p>Elitch Gardens Carousel, also known as Philadelphia Toboggan Company Carousel #6 or as the Kit Carson County Carousel, is a 1905 Philadelphia Toboggan Company carousel located in Burlington, Colorado.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Philadelphia Toboggan Company Carousel #6 was manufactured in 1905 for Elitch Gardens. It was used at the park every summer until 1928, when the park acquired a new carousel and sold the existing carousel and band organ to Kit Carson County for $1,200, including the cost of delivery by train to Burlington. During the Depression, the carousel spent six years in storage, re-entering use in 1937.</p><br>
<p>Restoration of the carousels band organ began in 1976. The Kit Carson County Carousel was designated a National Historic Site in 1978 and a National Historic Landmark in 1987. Restoration efforts continued in 1987 with work to restore the original paint to the animals, chariots, and the outer rim, new siding applied to the carousel building and Victorian-inspired landscaping. A second restoration to the carousel animals took place in 1992. Grants financed research into and restoration of the carousels original lighting, machinery room, moldings on the paintings, and the Wurlitzer band organ in 1997.</p><br>
<h3>1981 theft and return</h3><br>
<p>In May 1981, thieves removed three small horses and a donkey from the carousel during a heavy rainstorm. The animals were later recovered from a Salina, Kansas warehouse and returned to the carousel following a parade through Burlington in October 1981. Commemorative markers on the carousel mark the recovered animals&#39; locations.</p><br>
<h2>Carousel details</h2><br>
<p>It is the only antique carousel in America retaining its original paint on both the scenery panels and the animals, and it is the only surviving menagerie (having other animals in addition to horses) carousel made by Philadelphia Toboggan Company.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bond is a mountain located in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. The mountain is named after Professor George P. Bond  of Harvard University, and is the southernmost extension of the Twin Range of the White Mountains. Mount Bond is flanked to the north by Mount Guyot.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bond has two subsidiary peaks, West Bond and Bondcliff (or "The Cliffs"). All three peaks are included on the Appalachian Mountain Club&#39;s list of "four-thousand footers".</p><br>
<p>Mount Bond is located within the Pemigewasset Wilderness Area.</p><br>
<p>It drains to the east and west into the North Fork and Franconia Branch respectively of the East Branch of the Pemigewasset River, thence into the Pemigewasset and Merrimack Rivers, and into the Gulf of Maine in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>Col d&#39;Allos  is a high mountain pass in the Alps in the department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in France. It connects Barcelonnette in the Ubaye Valley and Colmars.</p><br>
<p>It lies parallel to the Col de la Cayolle and Col de la Bonette west of the Parc National du Mercantour. The source of the Verdon River is near the pass.</p><br>
<p>Between 1911 and 1939, the Col d&#39;Allos barely missed a year in the Tour de France (one of the most popular cols). François Faber was the first rider to cross the pass in 1911 and since then, it has been part of the route 33 times. It was last part of the 2000 Tour, (13th stage) when Pascal Hervé was the first to summit, in 2015 the mountain was again visited by Tour de France at Stage 17 this was won by Simon Geschke.</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>The northern side from Barcelonette is 17.5 km long, climbing 1,108 m at an average of 6.3%.</p><br>
<p>Starting from Colmars, the climb is 23.6 km gaining 1,005 m, resulting in an average of 4.3%.</p><br>
<p>On both sides mountain pass cycling milestones are placed approximately every kilometre. They indicate the current height, the distance to the summit, the average slope in the following passage, as well as the number of the street (D908).</p><br>
<h2>Bicycle tourism</h2><br>
<p>Together with the Col des Champs and the Col de la Cayolle it forms part of a popular round trip for cyclists (see for example ).</p><br>
<p>In July and August the Col d&#39;Allos is reserved for bicycles on Friday mornings (8am-11am).</p><br>
<p>Col de la Cayolle  is a high mountain pass in the French Alps at the border between the departments of Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in France.</p><br>
<p>It connects Barcelonnette in the Ubaye Valley and Saint-Martin-d&#39;Entraunes.</p><br>
<p>It lies parallel to the Col d&#39;Allos and Col de la Bonette in the Parc National du Mercantour.</p><br>
<p>The Var River has its source near the pass.</p><br>
<p>The road leads to the red-rock Gorges de Daluis.</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>The northern side, from Barcelonette, is 29.15 km long, climbing 1,190 m at an average of 4.1%. On this side mountain pass cycling milestones are placed every kilometer. They indicate the current height, the distance to the summit, the average slope in the following passage, as well as the number of the street (D902).</p><br>
<p>Starting from Saint-Martin-d&#39;Entraunes, the climb is 20.5 km gaining 1,291 m, resulting in an average of 6.3%. No signposts for cyclists are placed on this side. However, every kilometer a sign indicates the altitude, as well as the distance to the summit (uphill) or the next villages (uphill and downhill).</p><br>
<h2>Bicycle tourism</h2><br>
<p>Together with the Col des Champs and the Col d&#39;Allos it forms part of a popular round trip for cyclists (see for example ).</p><br>
<p>Col des Champs  is a high mountain pass in the Alps at the border between the departments of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Alpes-Maritimes in France. It connects Saint-Martin-d&#39;Entraunes and Colmars, joining the valleys of the Var River and the Verdon River.</p><br>
<p>Together with the Col de la Cayolle and the Col d&#39;Allos it forms part of a popular round trip for cyclists (see for example ).</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>The western side, from Colmars, is 12.5 km long, climbing 827 m at an average of 6.6%. The state of the pavement is partly very poor (as of August 2014). While some parts are recently renovated, others contain numerous potholes and are covered by loose gravel. On this side mountain pass cycling milestones for cyclists are placed approximately every kilometre. They indicate the current height, the distance to the summit, the average slope in the following passage, as well as the number of the street (D2).</p><br>
<p>Starting from Saint-Martin-d&#39;Entraunes, the climb is 16.5 km gaining 1,055 m, resulting in an average of 6.4%. The state of the pavement is generally good on this side. No signposts for cyclists are placed on this side. However, every kilometre a sign indicates the altitude, as well as the distance to the summit (uphill) or the next villages (uphill and downhill).</p><br>
<h2>The exact height</h2><br>
<p>The height of the summit is commonly specified by 2,087 m, including the signpost at the summit used until 2013. However, the current signpost at the summit indicates a height of 2,080 m (see below). A topographic map of the French Institut géographique national marks 2,088 m at this position of the sign, and 2,089 m some 50 metres away from the signpost.</p><br>
<p>Col des Champs cycling milestone.jpgOne of the mountain pass cycling milestones along the climb from Colmars</p><br>
<p>Col de Champs Summit 2013.jpgSignpost at the summit of the Col des Champs as of 2013</p><br>
<p>Col de Champs Summit 2014.jpgSignpost at the summit of the Col des Champs as of 2014</p><br>
<p>Nevado del Tolima is a stratovolcano located in Tolima, Colombia, south of Nevado del Ruiz volcano. The andesitic volcano overlies the Eocene El Bosque Batholith, dated at 49.1 ± 1.7 Ma.</p><br>
<p>The steep-sided, glacier-clad Nevado del Tolima volcano contrasts with the broad profile of Nevado del Ruiz volcano to the north. The andesitic-dacitic younger Tolima volcano formed during the past 40,000 years, rising above and largely obscuring a 3-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera. The summit consists of a cluster of late-Pleistocene to Holocene lava domes that were associated with thick block-lava flows on the northern and eastern flanks and extensive pyroclastic-flow deposits. The summit contains a funnel-shaped crater 200–300 m deep. This crater is quite recent and was not present in December 1926.</p><br>
<p>Holocene activity has included explosive eruptions ranging in size from moderate to plinian. The last major eruption took place about 3600 years ago. Lava dome growth has produced block-and-ash flows that traveled primarily to the NE and SE. Minor explosive eruptions have been recorded from Tolima in the 19th and 20th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Bravo is a stratovolcano located in Tolima, Colombia, north of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano. The rock type of the volcano is andesite.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>As with many volcanoes in the region, Bravo&#39;s eruptions are often characterized by a central vent (caldera) eruption, followed by an explosive eruption and pyroclastic flows. However, it is unique in the fact that its eruption have also produced lava domes in its caldera. Such eruptions occurred in 1720 ± 150 years, 1050 ± 75 years, and 750 AD ± 150 years (through radiocarbon dating). Eruptions consisting of just a central vent eruption and subsequent explosive eruption took place in 1330 ± 75 years, 1310 BC ± 150 years, 1050 BC ± 200 years and 4280 BC ± 150 years.</p><br>
<p>Nevado del Huila at 5,364 m, is the highest volcano in Colombia, located at the tripoint of the departments of Huila, Tolima and Cauca. It is visible from the city of Cali. The andesitic volcano is located on top of the Ibagué Batholith.</p><br>
<p>After being dormant for more than 500 years, the volcano showed heavy signs of activity in 2007 and 2008. As of February 20, 2007, there were more than 7000 "minor" seismic events, and a high state of alert was in place for the departments of Cauca, Huila, Caldas and Valle del Cauca. The volcano erupted twice in April 2007, once in April 2008 and again in November 2008. Any eruption would affect the small villages around the volcano, mostly Páez, where their inhabitants still have in memory the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano and the destruction of Armero.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptions</h2><br>
<h3>2007 eruption</h3><br>
<p>On April 18, 2007, the volcano erupted twice causing avalanches into the Paez River; this event caused water levels to rise along the Magdalena River. More than 4,000 people were evacuated with no casualties reported.</p><br>
<h3>2008 activity and eruption</h3><br>
<p>Nevado del Huila became active again in March 2008. After a multitude of earthquakes inside the volcano, Colombian authorities declared a state of yellow alert on March 18. The state of alert was increased to orange on March 29, meaning an eruption could be expected within two weeks. Hundreds of people were evacuated.</p><br>
<p>On April 14, 2008 at 11:08 pm, an ash eruption took place, prompting the government to issue a red alert and evacuate 13,000 to 15,000 people from around the mountain., International Herald Tribune, April 15, 2008.</p><br>
<p>The state of red alert was again lowered to orange on April 16, following diminished activity.</p><br>
<p>, Colombia Reports, April 16, 2008.</p><br>
<h4>November 2008 eruption</h4><br>
<p>On November 20, 2008, the volcano erupted at 02:45 GMT (at 21:45 on November 20 local time) according to Colombian Institute of Geology and Mining.</p><br>
<p>An immediate mass-scale evacuation was put in motion by the Colombian authorities, which the inhabitants of some towns reportedly refused. There were no injured reported at the time.</p><br>
<p>On November 23, 2008, BBC News, citing Colombian authorities, announced that the eruption had claimed ten lives, with 12,000 nearby residents being evacuated and emergency services unable to reach many of the more remote affected locations.</p><br>
<p>The eruption had triggered an avalanche of earth and debris that damaged houses, bridges and crops on plantations.</p><br>
<p>The three small towns of Paicol, La Plata and Belalcázar along the Páez River were affected by this eruption.</p><br>
<p>Extensive instrumentation of the volcano, put in place by the existing national system for prevention and care of disasters, which includes training of local inhabitants in high-risk regions and deployment of alarms in nearby towns, reportedly prevented large scale deaths. President Álvaro Uribe ordered the Air Force of Colombia to create an "air bridge" to provide supplies for cut off towns along the Páez River.</p><br>
<p>Azufral is a stratovolcano located in the department of Nariño in southern Colombia, 12 km west of the town of Túquerres. It is the only volcano of the Western Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Its name derives from the Spanish word for sulfur, azufre. The volcano is considered semi-dormant but there are numerous fumaroles in the summit crater. The summit of the volcano has an altitude of 4,070 m, and its bright green color is a result of the sulfur and iron-based deposits in the crater. There are also two other much smaller lakes in the crater, Laguna Negra  and Laguna Cristal .</p><br>
<p>The volcano lies within a nature reserve, the Reserva Natural del Azufral, created in 1990. The reserve covers an area of 5,800 hectare and is free of charge to enter. As Azufral is semi-dormant, there are no restrictions on ascending the volcano and visiting Laguna Verde: there is a road that climbs to within 1.5 km from the summit, and the remaining distance can be covered on foot via a trail.</p><br>
<p>Doña Juana  is a stratovolcano, located within the Doña Juana-Cascabel Volcanic Complex National Natural Park  in Nariño, Colombia.</p><br>
<p>With a previous eruption of VEI 4, Doña Juana is rated as a "large" volcano of "cataclysmic" destructive power. During its last eruption, in 1906, more than 100 people were killed and many houses were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Its largest known historical eruption was on November 13, 1899. In its prehistory, it is known to have erupted in the 23rd century BC in a caldera-forming eruption of unknown magnitude.</p><br>
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<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name of the volcano originated from a legend of the Chincha Indians, within whose native lands it is located: Mama Juana, a beautiful Quiteña, fell in love with Pedro, a commoner, but with the parents opposed to the marriage, they fled, becoming the victims of a curse that turned them into volcanoes.</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity</h2><br>
<p>The volcano can be ascended from a slope that is part of the so-called Valley of Orchids. It is surrounded by an area of extraordinary biodiversity, which includes 471 species of birds (the Andean condor included), bears, deer and pumas.</p><br>
<p>The summit of Dona Juana consists of a number of peaks, which afford a number of views, including of Laguna del Silencio, one of 42 lakes in the national park.</p><br>
